*
: —
HEALTH In THE HOUSE.
TWENTY-1LIVE LECTURES ON ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY IN ITS APPLICATION TO THE DAILY WANTS OF MAN AND ANIMALS, DELIVERED TO THE WIVES AND CHILDREN OF
WORKING-MEN IN LEEDS AND SALTAIRE
BY
CATHERINE M. BUCKTON,
MEMBER OF THE LEEDS SCHOOL BOARD. REVISED THROUGHOUT.
EIGHTH EDITION,
TORONTO: ADAM MILLER & CO.
ed
. Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one = thousand eight hundred and seventy-seven, by Apam MILLER & Co., in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. |
i NS ep aki i ie Sr AY
GLOBE PRINTING COMPANY, TORONTO,
year one ILLER &
PREFACE
a TO
: THE SIXTH EDITION. 5
:
| A in that time it has attained a success beyond my most seipeine xpectations. In preparing this new edition I have availed : poet of the criticisms sent me by several of the scientific if }men whose books I studied, and I have also benefited by ' eading the numerous reviews which have appeared. I-am iglad to be permitted to mention that Mr. Marsuatt, F.R.S., who kindly gave me his advice during the revision of the : D icinal manuscript, has rendered me still further indebted to Yhim by carefully reading through the book for the purpose of a this edition; and by these means it has, I hope, been much 4 improved. The present edition is published in a cheaper form, ot accordance with numerous suggestions which have been made to me for extending its influence. I hope that my 4 wectures will, therefore, now come within the reach of those 4 for whom they were originally written. 4 CATHERINE M. BUCKTON. > « Moontanp Ternace : # Feb, 4th, 1876.
; ae
!
PREFACE
TO
THE FIRST EDITION
, Havina had two winters’ experience in giving Lectures on ” Physiology and the Laws of Health to the wives and daughters u of working-men in Leeds and Saltaire, I ventured to hope I 7 might be able to make the same instruction interesting and intelligible to boys and girls in our Board schools, from the 7 ages of ten to twelve. With the aid and concurrence of my 4 colleagues on the School Board, about ninety children of both , sexes, in Standards IV., V., and VI., were collected into one a centre during the winter of 1874. As I wished to find out ) whether the children were really interested in my Lectures, I © fixed upon an hour in the afternoon when their schooltime ‘} was over, and explained clearly that I only desired to have | those who were anxious to come and could understand what I told them. :
) The following Lectures contain the substance of my teaching.
| I must claim the indulgence of the educated public for the ‘extreme simplicity of my style, and for the tautology which so 4 frequently appears. They must kindly remember that my whole endeavour was to tell my story in language that would ‘be understood by artisan children from the ages of ten to ‘thirteen.
During five months the attendance averaged fifty. Several
Jhalf-timers were obliged to <‘scontinue coming on account of
x PREFACE TO THE
their work. Without one exception, the children proved most attentive and polite, and, I am told, looked forward with great pleasure to the lectures. The answers sent in weekly to my printed questions proved that the most important part of the instruction was understood—namely, the necessity for fresh air, cleanliness, good food, and the great harm that spirits do to the different organs. The germ theory enabled me to show very clearly the danger of infection. By the aid of Anatomy, and Physiology or Anatomy in connection with Structure, I described the beautiful structure and marvellous life of ran and animals; and showed the awful amount of suffering that is caused by the cruel and ignorant practices of men and women. Physiology, when practically applied, becomes a most interesting study to persons of all ages, but when tuught alone is, I believe, uninteresting, and soon for- gotten by all except medical students.
The boys enjoyed the lectures on food and cooking equally with the girls, and it appears to me to be equally important that they should understand the properties of foods, and the principles on which they ought to be cooked.
To soldiers, sailors, and emigrants, such knowledge must be of vital importance. I cannot see how real success can attend any scheme for teaching cooking, unless this inform- ation has been previously given. Even a professed cook may prove a most extravagant poor man’s wife, and a lady may attend lectures on cuisine for ever, and still be unable to rear a healthy family, and make small means go far.
During my lectures, I determined to plead the cause of dumb animals as well as little children. Great interest was taken in all that was related about them. I was pleased to observe the strong expressions of disapproval written and expressed, when instances were given of the cruel and ignorant way in which they were often treated I believe the dreadful hratality now practised by human beings upon each other and
FIRST EDITION,
upon dumb animals, will not be really diminished until young people are reverently taught how wonderful’ ’ their bodies are made, and the great care that is needed to preserve them in health. No schools require this instruction so much as our elementary schools, for it is from them we draw our supply of nurses, grooms, farm-servants, and butchers. The following circumstance shows that instruction of this kind exerts a hamanising influence. A missionary told me he knew a woman who used to beat her children in a very brutal manner. Nothing that was said appeared to touch her heart, or change her ways, until she learned from the lectures how delicately and wonderfully a child is made; then her past cruelty pre- sented itself in its true light, she was filled with sorrow, and ceased to treat her little ones unkindly.
My lectures were concluded by a visit to our Museum. Seventy-three of the children met me there, and they all looked with great interest at the animals I had described. Museums are essentially places for working-men and their children, therefore every effort ought to be made to enable masters and mistresses to follow up their lessons on natural history by visits to these places. At the end of my course of twenty-five lectures, I presented to each child fourteen ques- tions, which bore on the information I had given respecting animals. These will be found in the Appendix, p. 199. Five prizes are to be awarded for the best answers by the Leeds branch of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Ani- mals, at their annual meeting.
I attributed my success in arousing the interest of my hearers to the pains I took to make the matter intelligible and attractive, by having models, illustrations, and experiments, and by giving the information orally. I was also very anxious to impress the children with confidence, so that they might come and ask questions at the close of the lecture. Prizes, I told them, would be given to those who showed by
xii PREFACE TO THE
their answers that they had endeavoured to understand and remember what I said. This encouraged those who wrote and spelt badly to show their intelligence and do their best, I always read over the questions before I began the lecture, in order to draw attention to the most important facts, and I repeated the information which I found from the written answers I had failed to make clear in the previous week. My only regret was that I had not a larger supply of models, and a greater number of experiments; for instance, a model of the head and brain, and an experiment to show how water can be decomposed by a galvanic current into oxygen and hydrogen, and other illustrations which will readily occur to experienced teachers.
Instruction of such vial importance ought only to be given by persons who are specially fitted for the work, and can be provided with every appliance which science and skill can furnish. Directly the people are educated and under- stand that fresh air, good water, and cleanly habits, are necessary for their health and happiness, they will demand model dwellings, and also those sanitary reforms which ignorant corporations and thoughtless masters and mistresses now withhold from them.
Mr. Stansfeld expressed this opinion publicly a few weeks since at Halifax in the following words :—‘ Legislation will never make people clean, nor can any sanitary reform be ac- complished until the masses are taught the Laws of Health.’ Saltaire is well known as a model manufacturing town, where Sir Titus Salt and his family have done all that sanitary skill and money can accomplish.
Mrs. Titus Salt induced me, last winter, to give a course of lectures to their people, as she assured me that they were very anxious to receive the same information I had given in Leeds. Experience bore ont this statement. My audience varied during six winter nights from two to five hundred
work to sa tude regr wha
and ¢ ally ¢ this I F.R.
advi
FIRST EDITION, xiii
working-womer, and their daughters, who received all I had to say, as my Leeds friends had done, with the greatest grati- tude and eagerness. On all sides I heard the strongest regrets expressed that they had not been taught early in life what every woman ought to know.
My warmest thanks are due to all my friends in Leeds and elsewhere, who have so kindly helped me, either person- ally or by their writings, to cull the information contained in this little volume.
I should like to express my obligation to Mr. MarsHatt, F.R.S,, the distinguished surgeon and physiologist, for the advice he was always ready to give during the revision of the manuscript. This kindness was doubly appreciated by
me, as it was rendered voluntarily to the work of a perfect stranger.
I cannot conclude without also mentioning the name of Mr. Whnuetnovss, F.R.C.S., one of our leading medical men. In the midst of his large practice he has always been ready to
clear up difficulties which books failed to make plain. From the first he gave me his sympathy, and encouraged me to carry out my work by the assurance that the efforts made by the medical profession to hinder the loss of life and suffering caused by preventible diseases will ever prove unavailing
until ignorant prejudices have been removed by sanitary knowledge.
Se ee
ote ete ee te Naina eo
CONTENTS.
— 0 eames
LECTURE I.
THE AIR WE BREATHE.
PAGE The Requisites for le Health | 1 | Sweat and Sweat-glands . Oxygen . 2 | Necessity for using moa
y Carbonic Acid. P . se Water
LECTURE II. IMPURE AIR AND VENTILATION.
Causes of Fever : : . 9 | Ventilation
LECTURE III. THE SKELETON. Fresh Air nenee for Dumb The Skeleton .
LECTURE IV.
SKELETON-JOINTS AND MUSCLES.
Animals. "a7 | TheSkull . .
‘reatment of Fever Cases . . 12 Directions for Sickness :
The Skeleton . . «+ 24 | The Foot ‘ : Tke Spine. : ‘ . 24 | The Muscles . . The Hip-joint . ‘ . . 29
LECTURE V.
THE CIRCULATION.
Substances in the Blood . . 386 | The Arteries . ‘
Circulation of the Blood . . 38 ’
LECTURE VI. THE CIRCULATION (continued).
The Capillaries ’ . . « 48 | Varicose Veins
Dar ran eras ree i Eds
Arteries cud Veins . ; . 46 Circulation of Animals
13 15
17 21
31 31
38
46 47
xvil . CONTENTS.
LECTURE VII.
RESPIRATION,
PAGE
PAGR
Carbon, ° : - » 49 | The Heat of the Blood 53 The Lungs, ¢ ¢ + §1 | The Thermometer 53 The Windpipe . . .. 61
LECTURE VIII.
RESPIRATION (continued), The Windpipe ° : - 56 | Croup ‘ : : - . 8&9 Consumption . - + + 58 | Treatment of DrowningPersons 61 Bronchitis ; 58 LECTURE IX. THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The Brain . : ‘ - « 63.| The Nervous System ofa Horse 71 Vertebrate Animals : - 69 ' The Horse’s Hoof . ; - 7
LECTURE X.
DIGESTION,
Organs of Digestion , - + 76 | TheSalivary Glands . 79 The Teeth . . |, - 76 | TheStomach .. 20
LECTURE XI.
DIGESTION (continued).
Cremation, . , - » 82 | TheBile . , : 84 Solid Foods . . ., . 82 | The Blood Corpuscles 85
LECTURE XII.
DIGESTION AND CARBONACEOUS FOODS.
Animal and Vegetable Foods . 87 | The Gastric J uice 90 Vege‘able Body-warmers. . 88 | Infant Digestion 9]
LECTURE XIII.
CARBONACEOUS AND N TROGENOUS FOODS,
Body-warmers . + + 98 | Flesh-formers 95 Sugar. ‘ . . - 94 | The Liver 96
AGR 53 53
79 a0
84 85
90 )]
5 6
CONTENTS. xv.
LECTURE XIV. NITROGENOUS AND LIQUID FOODS.
PAGE Bad Effects ot Spirits . . « 98 Water and Milk . ‘ . 101
PAGE Drink for Animals . . . 102
LECTURE XV. MILK AND MINERAL FOODS.
Milk. ‘ ‘ é . 104 | Scurvy . ‘ ° ‘ . 107 Salts . eye ‘ . . 106 | Potassium . ‘ ‘ . « 108 LECTURE XVI.
MINERAL FOODS.
Importance of teases for Ani-
mals . . 114 French Cooking | . F . 116
Soda ‘ : é P . 109 Salts . ‘ ‘ . 110 Water in Food ‘ ‘ . 112
LECTURF. XVII.
FOODS.
Flesh-formers . F . .117 | CheapSoup . . ‘ . 121 Body-warmers _119 | BeefTera . + «© - « 128 Different Effects of Food ¢ « UDO
LECTURE XVIII. cooxina (boiling). -
Vegetable Cooking . ‘ . 124 | Boiled Eggs . Pe a Potatoes. i , . . 125 | Poached Eggs . ° - « 128
LECTURE XIX. CooKING (continued).
Macaroni ; r . 183
Cooking Apparatus . . » 180 Vegetable Preparations . . 184
Roasted Joints . j Ree Rice... ; i ~ 6 408
LECTURE XX.
CooKINe (continued).
Vegetible Soup : . 185 | Coffee. . eo . » 148 Importance of pele: Foods . .189 | Cocoa - 6© © © + 144 Teu ‘ . 141 | Chocolate . ° . . . 144
a
Xvili CONTENTS,
LECTURE XXI.
COOKING (concluded).
PAGE Organs of Plants . . . 145 | Importance of Cleanliness Organic Matter e e e . 146 Baking e e e ° LECTURE XXII. THE NERVES AND THE SENSE OF HEARING.
The Organs of ening ~ + 154 | Quack Doctors
Fear . ‘ . . 155 | Effects of Lead- -poisoning Weak Nerves ‘ ; . 156 | The Sense of Hearing Evil Effects of Laudanum . . 157 | The Ear :
LECTURE XXIII. SIGHT AND SUNSHINE.
The Organ of cil , . 164 | Importance of Sunshine . The Eye . . . » 165 ' Day and Night .
LECTURE XXIV.
THE VOICE. 8 The Larynx . ° . . 172 | The Larynx of a Horse . . 176 9 Gentle Speech . . . . 174 | The Bearing-Rein . - . 176 10 LECTURE XXV. te
12
THE TREATMENT OF ANIMALS.
The Elephant. . «178 | Invertebrate Animals . .. 181 Cruelty to Animals. . . 179 | Oruelty and Kindness, . . 185
APPENDIX I.
food Table . . . . 187 | Howto Treat a Person Appa- Dry Foods. . . « . 189 rently Vrowned . . .« 196
Wet Foods . . - 190 | Directions for Bathing . . 196 Foods most Suitable for Health 192 | Disinfectants . R - « 197 How to Dress aScald . . 195
APPENDIX I. Books, Diagrams, and Models . . + «© © «© « 0 198
APPENDIX III. Questions on Cruelty to Animals aay, ee eee ; F . 199
—
s °
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
ric. 1, Front view of the inside of chest and abdomen. (Magshall)
2. Vegetable germ—Yeast plant . ‘ . 8. Microscopic Animal—Amoba ‘ 4, A front view of the human skeleton. (Marshall) 5. The bones of the head. (Dr. Southwood Smith) . 6. Human skull in a natural state. (Dr. Southwood Smith) 7. The skull of a North American Indian. (A. Bullar) 8. The different bones of the spine. (Marshal!) . 9. The spine. (Marshall) : ‘ . . 10. Back view of the bones of the left hand. (Marshall) 11, Side view of the bones of the left foot. (Marshall) 12, Natural foot . . ; . . 18. Chinese foot. (4. Bullar) . . . ‘ : : 14, Position of the heart, lungs, liver, and stomach. (Madame Bodichon) . ‘ . es 15. The organs pushed out of their sikcail by ota acing, (Madame Bodichon) ; : : : . . . 16. The aorta separated from the heart. (Marshall) A 17. View of the chest andabdomen. (Marshall) ‘ . 18, View of the heart and its arteries ‘ ‘ , ‘ 19, The lunge. (Dr. W. B. Carpentier) ‘ : . : 20, The top part of the great brain or cerebrum. (Marshall) ; 21. Half the brain. (Marshal?) ‘ ‘ ° ‘ | 22. Front view of the contents of the skull and the spinal column (Marshall) . ° . ‘ ‘ ° a
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
. View of the nerves, (Marshall) . Different shapes of some of the bones that ure joined together to
make thespine. (Marshall)
Organs of a vertebrate animal. (Milne Edwards) . Organs of a fish. (Milne Edwards) Bony skull and backbone of an ostrich. (D’ Alton) . Skeleton of a horse. (Stubbs) . . Side view of the trunk of the body. (Marshall) . . Diagram showing the stomach and the bowels. . Blood corpuscles, (Marshall)
. Starch grains. (£. Smith)
. Magnified slice of a young potato. . Vegetable germ—Yeast plant : : . Microscopic animal—Ameeba. (Dr. W. B. Carpenter) . . . View of the larynx. (Marshall)
. The larynx of a horse. (Mayhew)
. A lobster. (Dr. W. B. Carpenter)
. Au insect. (Dr. W. B. Carpenter) . An oyster. (Dr. W. B. Carpenter) . A starfish.
(Dr. W. B. Carpenter)
- Ameba. (Dr. W. B. Carpenter)
(S. W. Johnson)
PAGH 67 FF e . 68 : 69 | - 70 | un if ; .. 2 i , 7 iG (Marshall) . . 88 q : - 8 | - 89 | .1z6 yi Hop! 146 q these | £46 4 first r ; : is so - 177 q health. . 181 | a serie ° - 182 cg Facts i . 183 d Num! ; f : Numt i Creo q car 4 Total 1 We m It :
126 146 146 173 177 181 182 183 183 186
id ag er
HEALTH IN THE HOUSE.
LECTURE I. THE AIR WE BREATHE.
I nore that the instruction I am going to give you during these lectures will soon be given to every boy and girl. My first reason for desiring this is because I know that there is so much sickness, suffering, and dcath that is entirely caused by ignorance about physiology and the laws of health. Yor will see I have written down on this big sheet a series of
Facts that every Man and Woman in Leeds ought to know.
Number of men and women who died in Leeds in the year 1872, from preventible causes, such as Scarlet Fever, Typhus Fever, Small-Pox, &c. , i N ; ‘ , : . . 1,688 Number of Children who died in Leeds in 1872, from Fevers, Croup, &c., and more especially from the want of a mother's care ‘ ‘ ; ‘ ‘ ' ‘ ; : ‘ . 1,170 Total number of deaths from all causes. ‘ ‘ ‘ - 6,881
TO ENSURE GOOD HEALTH We must have
Fresh Air, | Good Drains, Pure Water, Proper Clothing, Wholesome Food, Temperance, Clean Houses, Cléanly Habits.
Clean Streets,
It is very sad to think that 1,538 grown-up people and 4,170 little children died last year in Leeds, and die every B
2 THE AIR WE BREATHE,
year, whose lives might have been saved ; but it is much more dreadful to know that nearly as many people who partly re- covered from these complaints are still living and suffering from diseases left by fevers, small-pox, &c.
Many fathers and mothers with large families, who were able to work and support them comfortably before they had these illnesses, are now obliged to live in the workhouse. Poor little babies grow up to be miserable weak men and women, unable to gain their own living, obliged to be de- pendent on charity, because their mothers either neglected them when they were infants, or were too ignorant to under- stand how to bring them up.
My second reason for wishing to give you these lectures is because I am so grieved to see how cruelly and unkindly human beings treat each other, and also how cruelly poor dumb animals are used. I feel quite sure that young people would not be cruel if they were made early to understand how beautifully and wonderfully our bodies are made. I shall show you that dumb animals, though they cannot tell us how much they suffer, do suffer when they are hurt, because a great many of them are made very much like we are, and can feel like ourselves.
You see the first thing I have mentioned as essentially necessary, if we are to secure health, is good air. I will tell you why—because we could live about a week without either water or food, but we could not live two minutes without air. If a pillow were placed over your mouth and nose, you would be dead in two minutes, because no air could get into your lungs. We first draw in a breath of air, and then we send cat a breath of air. This we do every instant of our lives, unless we have been crying, and then we sob and take in two or three breaths of air without letting one out, in this manner.
We breathe so gently and easily when we are well and have no cold, that we never think about how we breathe. The air we take into our mouths ought to be pure air and sontain a great deal of the gas that is in this bottle. It is called oxygen gas. Now, this is the most wonderful gas in the world, and. I shall have a great deal to tell you about it
before I
was an} colour, : our bod any of quite co I will p end of - flame.
I m on our say you your boc tiful mo middle c this pict to every ends of | ried in to every yourself we take the bloo oxygen a Beant
I wil mouths. druggist coming « ona pan you were was shut soon die from ou black let and this and hear and I wi
gas is,
HUW WE BREATHE. 8
before I have done my lectures. You would not think there was anything wonderful in this bottle; it has neither taste colour, nor smell ; but it is the gas in this bottle which makes our bodies warm and keeps us alive. Directly we can’t have any of it we die; and then you know our bodies become quite cold, like a piece of marble. At the end of my lecture I will put «his match, with just a tiny spark of light at the end of it, into this bottle; then it will burst into a bright flame.
I must now explain the wonderful effect oxygen gas has on our blood. You all know you have a heart, hut I dare say you don’t know what it is like, nor where it is placed in your bodies. I am glad to tell you I can show you a beau- tiful model of a heart; here it is. It is placed nearly in the middle of the chest, between the two lungs, as you will see by this picture. This wonderful little heart can send the blood to every part of our body, from the top of our head to the ends of our toes, in less than one minute. The blood is car- ried in thousands and thousands of little tubes, or pipes, to every part of the body. You know that if you prick yourself in any part with a needle, blood comes out. Directly we take in a breath of fresh air, the oxygen that is in it turns the blood into a beautiful bright red. I have written down oxygen gas here in red letters, because it makes the blood such a beautiful red colour. Look how it is spelt.
I will now tell you about the air which comes out of our mouths. It is as deadly as any poison you could buy at a druggist’s shop. On a cold day you can see the breath coming out of your mouths, and it looks like steam. Breathe on a pane of glass, and you will see directly a white film. If you were to sit in a room that had no windows, and the door was shut fast, so that no fresh air could come in, you would soon die. The name of the poisonous gas that comes out from our mouths is carbonic acid ; it is written down here in black letters, because it turns all our blood dark and thick, and this dark blood poisons the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and heart, and so we die. I have got some here in this bottle, and I will show you at the end of the lecture how heavy this gas is, Like air, it cannot be seen, but I can pour some of
B2
Fro, 1,
Front view of the inside of the chest (/horax) an-. aocomen, laid open by taking away their onts'de coverings, the ribs in front of the chest having been removed. The tip of the breast-bone (s/ernum) and part of the cartilages of the seventh and following ribs, are kept, as the diaphragm, which scparates these two hollow parts of the trunk, is fixed to them. In the chest are seen the right and left lungs272; and between them the bag of the heart (pericardium), laid open to show a part of that organ hk. Passing up from the heart to the sides of the neck are the great blood-vessels, the aorta, the vein i, between which are seen the wind-pipe and the larynx. Eelow the diaphragm, and therefore in the abdomen, is seen, projecting below the right ribs, a part of the liver a, From a notch low down projects the gall-bladder. Under the liver, and to the left, is the stomach s. at the left end of which is seen a piece of the spleen ; below is the great bowel c, or intestine, which goes nearly round the small bowels, or intestines, that lie twisted about in the middle, Lowest of all lies the bladder. When you look at a diagram in alook, you must remember that you are standing opposite to the figure which has its back to the page. ‘Your right hand therefore will be on the left in the figure ; what is on your right in the figure, will be on your left side really.
it from that bottle into this bottle, because it is heavier than air, I will puta lighted candle into it, and out it will go. Noxt week I will let one of the boys or girls fill a bottle with
the ai: it con!
just in
Tt few y and v Engla One n much and v deck, sailors storm sailors called. poor ¢ the ca a& sec remail do you and | others the ai been :
like ox quanti over a tened in, W openet dead, been
have
butch which who e
O
\ j
OXYGEN AND UVARBONIC ACID Gas. 5
the air that comes out of their mouths, and you will see that it contains some carbonic acid gas, for it will put out a candle just in the same way that this gas will put out a light.
There was an emigrant ship that sailed from Liverpool a few years ago. This vessel was going to The men and women and children on board were going to leave old England to work in a strange land. They were emigrants One night a dreadful storm arose. The ship tossed about so much that the captain ordered the sailors to send all the men and women and children down into a large room under the deck, because he was afraid they might be in the way. The sailors fastened the door so that they could not get out. The storm went down ina few hours, when the captain told the sailors they might open the, door, or hatches as they were called. The sailorstook acandle, because the room where these poor creatures were put was quite dark. When they entered, the candle went out. They lighted it again, and it went out a second time. This was done several times. At last it remained alight, and so they were able to descend. And what do you think they found? Nearly all the men and women and little children lying on the ground. Some were dead, others unconscious. The only air they had had to breathe was the air that had come oui of their mouths. No oxygen had been able to get in, so they had been poisoned by carbonic acid gas.
I must tell you that all dumb animals which have a heart like ours also die if they cannot have good air containing a large quantity of oxygen. About a year or two ago a ship brought over a large number of sheep from Holland. They were fas- tened down in a room such as the poor emigrants were vlaced in, where no pure air could enter. When the hatches were opened, it was found that six hundred and forty-six were dead, and had to be thrown overboard. When animals have been cruelly treated, deprived of good air and good food, they have fevers, consumption, and other complaints. Some butchers kill them in this diseased state, and sell their flesh, which is unhealthy, and must do harm to the human beings who eat it.
Owing to our ignorance, we often have to sit in rooms
6 THE AIR WE BREATHE,
which are filled with this impure air, which poisons our blood. Fortunately, some of this poison is able to get out through our mouths in the breath and through our skins in sweat. You know on a summer’s day, when you have run or walked quickly, how the water runs down your face and you feel wet all over. Now, this sweat contains some of the same gas that comes out of your mouth. It is deadly poison. Even during the winter, when our hands feel quite cold, there is a great deal of this steam coming out of our skin. It is called invisible perspiration or sweat, because you cannot see it. When it runs down your face, it is called visible perspiration, because you can see it. I think you will be astonished when I tell you that in winter as well as summer, if we are in health, more than two pints of perspiration ought to come out daily through our skin. There are thousands and thousands of little holes in our skin, smaller than the point of a needle. Each of these little holes leads into a little pipe of twisted skin, like this model of a sweat gland, made of glass, which I hold in my hand. Itis through these little pipes that the sweat is carried and runs out through the little holes in the skin. It is said that if all these little pipes of flesh, called sweat glands, which are in one person could be pulled out straight, and fastened together, they would reach a distance of twenty- eight miles. Now, supposing that all these thousands and thousands of little glands were shut up, so that the two pints and more of sweat could not get out, what do you think would happen? Why, you would die, as the following story will prove.
‘\ long while ago, in Rome, there was a grand feast or fest:,al. People were drawn about in carriages ornamented with flowers. Somebody thought that one of these carriages would look most beautiful if a little boy, dressed like an angel, could be placed in the middle of it. They covered the whole of his body with gold, and fastened on to his shoulders a pair of gold wings. The little fellow was con- sidered to look very lovely. When his mother went to see how the little angel looked next morning asleep in bed, she
found he was dead. The gold had completely closed all - the pores, or little holes, in his skin, and therefore he had
been | get ou All as we were | paint - boy di It enter Sailor; days | that, i water would becaus thirsty
THE SKIN, yj
been poisoned by the sweat and carbonic acid that could not get out.
All four-footed animals have pores and sweat glands, just as we have, except those which have a bony covering. If you were to varnish a guinea-pig—that is, cover it all over with paint—it would die for the same reason that the little Roman boy died. The sweat could not get out.
It is very important to know that both air and liquids can enter these holes in our skin as well as come out of them. Sailors who have been cast on a rock for three or four days have been prevented from dying of thirst by knowing that, if they kept wetting their clothes in the sea water, the water would get through these holes into their blood. It would have been impossible for them to drink the sea water because the salt in it woald only have made them more thirsty. Fortunately the salt does not enter the skin, only the water without the salt.
A gentleman was once so ill that he could neither eat nor drink anything, and must therefore have died. The doctors managed to keep him alive for two or three days by putting him frequently into milk baths. The milk got through the pores of his skin and nourished his body. After this time he was able to eat and drink, and soon recovered.
A great deal of oily matter likewise comes out of the skin, and it is owing to this oily matter that it is quite impossible to get the dirt off your hands and face unless you use soap.
Soap mixes with oil, but water will not. A working- woman who attended some of my lectures last winter told me that she had often been ‘fair capped’ to find that she could not get off the dirt unless she used soap, ‘but now,’ she said, ‘I understand the reason why, and am very much obliged to you for telling me.’ I hope you will never forget to wash yourselves well every morning and night with plenty of soap and water.
Things provided for the Lecture.
Marshall’s diagram of the heart and lungs, and Auzoux’s model of the heart. A large sheet upon which the death-roll and the laws of health were printed
i
i i) Hr
SERNA AAR AT SER oe ate NATIT 8
8 THE AIR WE BREATHE.
A drawing of a small piece of the palm of the hand, with threesweatg »nds dirty h blown in white glass suspended from the pores. , | city, in
The words ‘Oxygen Gas’ written in large red letters, ‘Carbonic Acid ias * Tane in
written in bluish-black letters on two sheets of calico.
sign of Two glass bottles filled with oxygen gas. of the Two glass bottles filled with carbonic acid gas. ; ' Common matches and a candle. Q great n A high tumbler into which to pour the carbonic acid gas. 7 streets Experiments with carbonic acid gas, to show how it cxtinguishes ligm and | these d is so heavy a gas that it can be poured from one vessel into anotha and contain if poured over a lighted candle will extinguish it. wood 1 All difficult words to be written large on a sheet, and the children : + be ee told to copy them at every lecture. ati 9 which Questions for the First Lecture. ; ae a > an 1, What is the name of the good air that gives heat and life te our | tT have bodies ? q r 2. What is the name of the bad air that comes out of our mouths? 4 en 8. Why do human beings and dumb animals die if they are shut up ins: | the air room where no fresh air can come in? a about 4. If all the sweat glands that are in our bodies were joined together | wonde: how far would they reach, and how much perspiration comes out of q breath
them daily ? . Why is it necessary that wo should wash ourselves daily with soap as 4 peel well as water? q acid g 6. If you were in a boat on the sea without any fresh water to drink, 9 nothin how would you prevent yourself from dying of thirst ? * thankf ) y of our ao D to fine 2 discov LECTURE II. = of sca
IMPURE AIR AND
or
ViNTILATION.
I roLD you last Wednesday that many thousands of people now die in England every year from complaints they would (7% not have if the laws of health were understood, and that thousands and thousands of people live to suffer all their lives because they have had fevers and other preventible diseases. Three or four hundred years ago a great many more people died of even more dreadful complaints than those we have now. I don’t think you will be surprised at this when I tell you what dirty houses people lived in, and what
ple uld hat eir
ble
ny ose his
WHY WE HAVE FEVERS, 9
dirty habits they had. London, which is now such a grand city, in those days had only narrow little streets like Fleece Lane in Leeds. Fleece Lane, you know, is so narrow that tho sign of a sheep which is hung up just reaches from one side of the strect to the other. In London they used to have a great many similar signs, which were suspended across the streets and prevented the fresh air from passing through these dark places. To make matters worse, the streets also contained pigsties and middens. They had no fireplaces; the wood was burnt in the middle of the room, and the smoke escaped as it could. Carpets they had none, only straw, which was allowed to remain for more than ten years; every now and then a fresh quantity was put over the old straw, and at last it was all thrown out into the narrow dirty streets I have already described.
Fevers are caused by some poisonous matter which floats in the air, or which has got into the water we drink. It is only about a hundred years since Dr. Priestley discovered this wonderful oxygen gas of which there is so much in the air we breathe. He was a very scientific man, and lived for some years in Leeds, where he had previously discovered carbonic acid gas. Most people thought, before that time, there was nothing in the air, because they could not see anything. Jam thankful to tell you that at this present time in England some of our cleverest men are spending their whole time in trying to find out all about the air we breathe. They have already discovered so much about it that they can weigh air in a pair of scales just as you would weigh sugar or tea. They have such powerful magnifying glasses that by looking through them they can see the things that are floating in it. They have long been able to look into water and discover what it contains.
Now, in this little bottle of water there are a great many living things. Neither you nor I can see them now; but if you look through this magnifying glass, which is called a microscope, you will see them, and will find among them creatures like that drawn on this sheet called the Ameeba.
These very small things called ‘germs’ are the beginning of life in all plants and animals. There are animal germs and
“TTT Te enn aos conn panna lai amaaamamaaaamaacaiamemmamaaaalaaal
10 THE AiR WE BREATHE.
vegetable germs. You all know German yeast, or brewer's 4 yeast, which your mothers put into the flour to make the bread 7 rise! Now, if you could look at that yeast through a micro. | scope, you would find it is made up of millions and millions of 7
Microscopic Plant— Yeast Fiant. Microscopic Animal—Ameeba.
little germs, or seeds, like this. A thousand of them will grow in a minute from only one seed. .
The very simple microscopic animal of which I have showed you a drawing, is called the Amoeba; it grows quite as quickly as the yeast plant. I must tel) you that the yeast plant and the Amoeba are both harmless to man. ‘There is life in everything we eat or drink and in the air we breathe. I could show you that there is life in sugar, vinegar, cheese, &c.
There are germs and little creatures of two kinds. Some are wholesome, like the germ in yeast and like the Ameeba; othersare unwholesome. The germs that are in good air and good water are wholesome germs, but those that are in bad air and bad water are poisonous, and when they get into our blood they give us fevers, cholera, &c. The air that comes from drains and middens is full of poisonous germs ; they breed also in any dirt that is allowed to stand fora long time. I am glad to tell you that directly the oxygen which is in fresh air mixes with them, and the foul air which is their food is removed, they die.
You see I have a grey substance in this bottle which is called permanganate of potash. It is very cheap, though it has such a long name. Now, this stuff contains a great deal
' Here I showed some yeast.
of oxy who |] mangd come T have it. Y will p as bri contal colour yellov oxyge open drive D peopl in En woma up in fresh all th sweat again peiso! to me mad bed. those healt the s
wer's | read jj icro- | ns of |
will
have ‘ite as yeast ere is oathe.
legar,
Some ceba, ; rand ad air blood from 1 also I am fresh 0d is
ich is gh it t deal
WHY WE HAVE FEVERS. 11
of oxygen. If you were to put any clothes from a person who had had a fever into a tub of water with some per- manganate of potash in it, all the poisonous germs that had come from the body of the sick person would be killed. Here I have some water which has some permanganate of potash in it. You see that its colour is a beautiful deep purple, and I will put some of it into this pure water. The colour remains as bright as ever. Now I will put it into some water that contains a poisonous substance, and you will see that the colour immediately flies, and the water will look a dirty yellow. What a-blessing it is we can get this wonderful oxygen gas without paying for it! All we have to do is to open our windows and doors and let it rush in, and then it will drive away and kill all the fever germs.
During those times I have just told you about, when people had such dirty habits and suffered from dreadful fevers in England, how do you think they treated a poor man, or woman, or child, who had a fever? They used to shut them up in a room, and close the windows, so that not a breath of fresh air could come in. The bed clothes were never cuanged ; all the poisonous matter that came out through the skin as sweat and oily matter was allowed to remain and collect, so it again entered the blood through the pores of the skin and poisoned it more and more. Blankets were put upon them to make them sweat. When the unfortunate person became mad with the fever and the treatment, he was tied down to the bed. No wonder he died. Even the doctors, as a rule, in those times did not understand anything about the laws of health. They used to treat people in the small-pox just in the same way.
In 1731, more than a hundred years ago, small-pox was very bad at a place called Blandford. There were 150 persons ill in one hospital. One night--it was summer-time—a fire broke out. All the sick people were carried out and put into the fields under bridges, under hedges, anywhere, and there they remained three days and three nights. Everybody ex- pected they would die directly, but instead of that they all got well, except one poor girl, who was nearly dying when the fire broke out. How delightful it must have been for the
12 IMPURE AIR AND VSNTILATION,
poor creatures to have plenty of fresh air blowing upon them, instead of being shut up in close rooms.
It is most important that no clothes should be kept in a room where anyone has a fever. If I were a poor woman with six children, and had only two rooms to live in, and found cne of my children was sickening for a fever, I should immediately take all the clothes out of the drawers, bundle them up in a parcel, put them into the other room where I lived, remove every bit of curtain and carpet, open the window at the top about two inches, or break a top pane of glass if it would not open, see that the fireplace was open, or, if it was not very hot weather, light a small fire. Then I should warm the bed give the child something hot, and send for the doctor.
Germs float in the air, settle upon the furniture and the walls, and get caught in articles of furniture, carpets, bed- clothes and wearing apparel; they live best in woollen materials, which seem to keep them warm and feed them. Cobwebs are of a silky nature, and cases have been known where one cobweb has held sufficient germs to give a fever over again. It is right on this account that a nurse should wear a cotton dress.
I will tell you a story that will prove how well woollen material will retain the germs of a disease. During those ignorant, dirty times in England long ago a dreadful com- plaint, called the Plague, used to rage. It visited England many times in the course of several hundred years. Directly it was known that anyone had this complaint, no one would go near him; he was allowed to die alone—so great was the dread of it. Ina village called Eyam in Derbyshire, in 1666, a tailor lived, named George Vicars. One day he received a box of clothes from London, containing such articles of clothing as coats, trousers, &c., all made of wool. He opened the box, and spread these things out to air before the fire. As he stood watching the clothes dry he felt sick. The heat of the fire no doubt brought the germs to life, and they floated about in the air, and he breathed or swallowed them. The next day he was worse, and on the third day a black spot appeared on his breast. Then he knew that he had the Plague. He died that night. No doubt people went
to his fur clothes, t would be weeks aft little ville to run av brave ma the Plag people di could. 4 fall of gn it was Cl the field cave in there ths few who dred yea people a many ot The material ner fave four yea house, a the doll child w mothers they ar skin pé girl in school. hold th washed
® WHY WE HAVE FE/ZERS. lb
to his funeral and into the house to see the corpse. Those clothes, too, which had come from London, as well as his own, would be worn by different members of his family. In a few weeks after the funeral the Plague broke out in this beautiful little village. The people became so terrified that they wanted to run away to other towns, but the clergyman, a good and brave man, Mr. Monpesson, persuaded them to remain, so that the Plague might not spread to other towns, Nearly all the people died. Still Mr. Monpesson remained and did all he could. At last he lost his wife. The churchyard became so fall of graves that no one dared to enter it or the church, so it was closed. Ona Sunday the people used to pray out in the fields. If you ever go to Eyam, you will see a little cave in a rock which is all covered over with ivy. It was there that Mr. Monpesson used to perform the service to the few whose lives had been spared. Though nearly two hun- dred years have passed since those dreadful days, there are people at Eyam who will tell the story I have told, and a great many other most interesiing facts about the Plague.
The germs or poison of scarlet fever can live in woollen materials for several years. A little girl died of this fever ; ner favourite doll was put by in a woollen dress. Three or four years afterwards a little cousin came to pay a visit at the house, and the mother, to amuse the little girl, brought out the doll. Not more than a week elapsed before the poor child was seized with scarlet fever. It is very wrong of mothers and fathers to send their children to school when they are recovering from scarlet fever. During that time the skin peels off, and'that skin is full of germs, and one boy or girl in this state can spread the fever through the whole school. The hair of the head, being of a woolly nature, may hold the germs for a considerable time, unless it be well washed with hot soap and water and permanganate of potash.
I am now going to tell you how we can ventilate a room— that is, make the air fresh and free from all infection. You will perhaps think that you could make the air fresh by open- ing a window. I will show you that you cannot make the air fresh unless you have an open fireplace as well as an open window.
14 IMPURE AIR AND VENTILATION.
You see this little kettle with the steam coming out of the spout. Why does the steam rise up instead of falling down P Because hot air is much fighter than cold air. Our breath also rises like steam, because it is warmer than the air about us. If you remember, I told you thatif I had anyone ill in a fever I should open the window at the top or break a hole in a top pane of glass, unless it was very cold, but in any case if there was no chimney in the room and the room was small ; that was because I wanted to allow the carbonic acid gas, which is light when it is warm, though very heavy when it is cold, to fly through the opening in the top of the window, or, at all events, to mix it with fresh air. Cold air is always running after hot air, for as the hot air rises cold air rushes in to take its place. If you heat the air in a room by means of a fire, the
warm air will go up the chimney, and cold air will come in to |
fill up the gap; so hot and cold air are always chasing each other. Do you not know, when you are sitting by a fire on a cold winter’s night, how the wind whistles through the key- holes, pushing its way under the door? Itis only because the cold air is rushing after the hot air escaping from the room.
I dare say you have all been at home on a washing-day, and seen the room full of steam. You will find that if you open the kottom part of the window the steam will not go out of the room, but if you open the top about two inches it will fly out quickly enough. Tell your mothers about this. Directly the steam gets cold at the top of the room, it falls down like rain, and covers the furniture and clothes, so that they become wet. A mother tpld me once that her little boy often suffered from bronchitis after a washing- day, but on following my directions about opening the top of the window the child did not suffer from his old attacks. It is dangerous to sit in a room with the bottom part of a window open, as it often causes a draught to blow directly upon you; but you do not feel the air when it comes from a window that is open a little at the top. In our house we all sleep with our windows open at least an inch at the top both summer and winter, and we never take cold. The room feels so fresh when we awake in the morning because the carbonic acid gas has heen able to make ita escape.
a cold fres » air that
Directio
f necessar
water t ©& potash, = washed
I wil onght to room.
seven ar
in Golde
> slept in > have dre
doctor c were eig
> were all
be move
4 They fo
the girls The win gas coul it had pc to take c stuffed u
Whe:
* into our » to say w * itisto x > order ths in your
the top. in a bed
germs spread washe
Re m
Kee
WHY WE HAVE FEVERS, 15
I will now tell you a story which will prove that thero ought to be a fireplace in every bed-room as well as sitting- rom. In 1782 seventy-three pauper children, between seven and fourteen years of age, were sent to a new house in Golden Square, London. ‘Twenty of these children (girls) slept in a room together. In fourteen days they began to
_ have dreadful pain, were sick, and became delirious. The 4 dector could not imagine what caused the illness, as there + were eighteen girls who slept in the next room, and they were all well. The doctor ordered that the sick girls should 4 be moved into a much larger room, where they recovered. ) They found out that the chimney of the room in which ) the girls had first slept was quite closed up with bricks. The window and door being also closed, the carbonic acid + gas could not escape, and the air had become so bad that +) it had poisoned their blood. Now, do remember, all of you, to take care and see that the chimneys of your rooms are not stuffed up with bags. ; When we take lodgings at the sea-side, directly we go * into our bed-rooms we look up the chimneys. I am sorry » to say we generally find they are quite filled up. They say + itis to prevent the dirt from coming in. Then we have to ™ order that the bags be taken away. If you have no fireplace + in your room, be sure you have the window a little open at * the top. You now anderstand why it is good to have a fire ina bed-room where there is sickness, because it causes the * cold fresh air to rush in through the room after the warmer > air that is escaping up the chimney.
‘5
ik is a z
) Directions how to attend to a sick person’s rv0m, so that the
7 germs of infection may not escape into the neat room, or be spread by sending the dirty bed linen and clothes cut to be washed.
: Remove the carpets and all the furniture that is not quite '* necessary. Keep an earthenware pan in the room filled with clean ( water that contains a proper quantity of permanganate of Spotash. Directly any bed linen or clothes require to be = washed, put them into this water for five or ten minutes, or
16 IMPURE AIR AND VENTILATION.
into boiling water, if there is no permanganate of potash, as no poison germs can live long in boiling water. If water is only warmed it makes them grow more quickly. Washer. women and their families often lose their lives by fevers taken from clothes that have come straight from the body or bed of an invalid. I cannot understand how people can do so wicked and so cruela thing as to send poor washerwomon clothes in this dangerous state.
Instead of sweeping the floor, use a damp mop. A great deal of woolly matter collects under all beds: so take it all away with the mop. Dust the furniture with a clean damp duster that has been wrung out of the pan of water. If you dust any room with a dry duster, and do not very often shake it out of the window, you had much better not dust at all, for you only make the dust fly about in the air you breathe; after a little time it will all settle on the furniture. A packet of permanganate of potash that costs one shilling will make twenty gallons of water sufficiently strong to destroy all germs of disease. One teaspoonful will make two gallons. Great care must be taken to mix the powder until it is quite dissolved. It is sold by all druggists.
N.B. After a fever or any infectious complaint, all bedding can be purified free of expense, if a post-card be sent to the Inspector of Nuisances. He will be only too glad to send for the things immediately, and place them in the hot-air appa- ratus, which will kill all germs of disease, without injuring the bedding. They will be safely returned directly they have been purified.
Things provided for the Lecture.
A picture of a microscopic animal and a vegetable germ. Some German yeast, to show what the yeast plant is like. A bottle of water containing life which is invisible to us. A microscope.
A bottle containing a solution of permanganate of potash. A bottle containing some decomposed organic matter.
One bottle of oxygen gas.
Questions for the Second Lecture. 1. What are germs, and how can you kill them?
2. Why is it dangerous to send a child to school when it has had scarlet fever and the skin is peeling off ?
Pour so the p Pour so chang¢ Fill a be inat to co the ai a cor] bottle immec Put a ta instar
BEFOR! society animal see du engagt donke: has wh about
prizes
THE SKELETON, 17
3. If a room were full of steam, how would you sead it out ?
4. How would you bring fresh air into a room and send the bid air out; that means, ventilate a room?
5. Why did people have dreadful fevers and the plague 200 years ago?
Leperiments.
Pour some of the solution of permanganate of potash into pure water; the purple colour will remain bright.
Pour some into the bottle containing organic matter; the colour will be changed to a dirty yellow. |
Fill a bottle with water and place it with its mouth downwards on a stand in a tub of water. Then put a glass tube to the mouth, and ask a child to come and breathe through it. The water will be soon displaced by the air charged with carbonic acid gas that comes from his lungs. Put, a cork into the bottle while it is quite under water. Now take the bottle out, remove the cork, and put in a lighted taper; it will be
immediately extinguished. Put a taper with a spark of light into the bottle of oxygen gas, and it will instantly burst into bright flame.
LECTURE III. VHE SKELETON.
Berore I begin my lecture to-day I must tell you about a society there is in Leeds for the prevention of cruelty to animals. Several ladies and gentlemen who cannot bear to see dumb animals unkindly treated, give their money and engage men whose duty it is to go about and see that horses, donkeys, and all dumb animals are well used. This society has cheard that I am going to give you some information about dvmb animals, and they have offered to present three prizes for the best answers to twelve questions I intend to give you when I have finished this course of lectures.
After my last lecture about impure air you will see that it is impossible for human beings to be healthy and strong unless they have plenty of fresh air. I will try to-day to make you understand why good air is equally necessary for dumb animals. Horses, cows, sheep, dogs, birds, and all animals except man were made to live night and dayin the
C
18 THE SKELETON,
open air, and wander about in search of food. Birds, for instance, fly many hundreds of miles in a day in search of food. We take them and shut them up in cages so small that there is scarvely room in them to move, much less fly. These cages are often hung up in close rooms or by a window where the sun shines so strongly that the poor birds pant for air and long to fly into their shady woods, where it is cool and dark. I think it is very crvel and selfish to keep any animal shut up just for the pleasure of looking at it, or in order to hear it sing. Even men who are considered to be educated do not understand that all animals will die in air that has no oxygen. This I will prove by the following story.
In the Zoological Gardens in London are to be seen animals which have been brought from foreign countries ; monkeys among the rest. They are very delicate, as they come from hot countries, where they live out in the woods. A great number used to die every winter, because our climate was too cold for them. Some gentlemen determined that they would build new monkey-houses, and make them su warm that it would be impossible for them to feel the cold. To their great surprise, more monkeys died than ever in these snug abodes. At last it was discovered that, as every little hole was filled up, no fresh air could enter. The poor creatures had been poisoned by their own breath—overcharged with carbonic acid gas.
I told you in my first lecture that an immense number of people die every year owing to our ignorance of the laws of health. For the same reason you will find that an immense number of animals most valuable to man die every year—the cow, for instance. Let us see how many different kinds of food we get from the cow alone: milk, cream, butter, cheese, and beef; veal comes from the calf, or young cow. Butcher’s meat and all these kinds of meat are very dear. The farmers, who ought to take care of their cows, don’t understand that they require as much care as human beings. Cows die by thousands of consumption every year in the British Islands. Consumption is very often caused by breathing bad air. <A veterinary surgeon in Leeds (that means a doctor who tries to
Se en ae ae
carrie they huddl Very voyag unheg quite cruel! losing to to-da I a@ pic C is su ough
THE SKELETON, 19
cure cattle) told me the other day that whenever he was seni for to see cows that were ill of fever or consumption, he found them living in horribly dirty stables, and when he told the farmers that they must clean the place by taking out the dung and whitewashing the walls, &c., they only laughed at him. The greatest care, of course, ought to be taken of all animals who furnish us with food. If they are not healthy when the butchers kill them, their flesh will of course be bad for us to eat.
Pigs have a dreadful complaint called measles. People who have eaten their flesh, which, you know, is pork, ham, and bacon, have taken this disease, and died after suffering great agony. Pigs get this disease owing to their not having been kept clean and properly fed. Sheep also die by thonsands of measles and all kinds of diseases. All this ignorance has helped, in a great measure, to make butcher’s meat very cear, because the cattle have become so scarce. We are now obliged to fetch them from foreign countries.
You have all heard of the cattle-plague ; it was brought from Russia. There they treat their animals just as we do. For a long part of their journey these poor creatures are carried by railway in dirty carriages, so closely packed that they can scarcely move, and then they are driven and huddled together on board vessels, and suffer terribly at sea. Very little food or water is given them on the journey and voyage. Even healthy animals so treated would become unhealthy during their long journey. Don’t you think it is quite right that we should suffer for our ignorance and cruelty, as we do, by having to eat diseased meat, and also by losing our own cattle, to say nothing of what they have
to undergo? This is all I shall say about dumb animals to-day.
I shall now describe the human skeleton. You see I hav: a picture of the skeleton of a man here.
Our bones are the foundation, or frame, on which our flesh is supported. You see by this outer line where the flesh ought tocome.! There are more than two hundred bones ir.
! Marshall’s diagram, No. 1, page 20. c2
20
THE SKELETON.
the skeloton. Our frames consist of three parts: the heed, the body or trunk, and the arms and legs.
A front view of the human skeleton. The line that is drav.i rownd tho skeleton shows where the flesh would come in a life figure,
The bo parie chee! into jawh
over the t stro} with whe and reas our pre
~ whe
THE SKULL, 21
I will first tell you all I can about the head, When I say the head, I mean the head and the face also. The bones of the head and face are twenty-two in number, and they form the skull. This is a very strong box of bone; I hold one in my hand. It is the skull ot a young man. You see that the top of it is round, not flat; itisin the shape of anarch, Now, an arch is the strongest shape in which the skull could be made, just as an arched bridge is the strongest shaped bridge which can be made to bear the heavy loads that have to pass
Fria. 5.
The bones of the head, which consists of the cranium, and face: 1, frontal bone; 2, left parietal bone ; 3, left’ temporal bone ; 4, right upper jawbone ; 5, lower jawbone; 6, right cheekbone. This figure also shows ‘the two eye-sockets, or orbits, the opening leading into the right and leit nasal or nose-cavities, and the arrangement of the teeth in the jawbones. The head has eight, and the face fourteen bones. (vom Nature.)
over it. You know that men can carry very heavy things on the top of their heads. Why do you think our skulls are so strongly made? Let us see what they contain—our eyes with which we see, our ears with which we hear, our mouths where we eat our food, the nose which enables us to smell, and then our brains. Without brains we should have no reason or power of thinking. Our skulls therefore hold our senses of seeing, hearing, taste, and smell. It is a very precious box, 1 think. There are, as I have just said, twenty-
— Soe.
x >. + a 2
= Se
4 S = = Ss >
a
A geo EE TD os.
# =.
tn
Ki ae oe
Seat
See ae a
»?- a Ps
¥ \
"
4 Ly AL ta’ ‘i
> wig
ib
\ aM | ot pa a s Kel) f ' un : ’
+ By ¥Y ‘ . J yt ‘ $ it) % b a } WI § uf S, * » i ’ t +}
a Wy
Yay 4 ii
i" 4 "| Ni
a ‘eh $
ee ‘
rie
, . ie ™
© Ste pee
chai j noe ae’ ‘Ne F a RiP Ame oe «
" PRs. . Ph rhs iy A , > ime A wg
‘
¢ : ¢ d 4
J
(
22 THE SKELETON.
two bones from the face to the back of the head. If you were to see the skull of a baby, you would be able to find out where the bones join, aud you could see how curiously many of them fit into each other, like two saws that joiners use to saw wood with. These bones are either gristly or membranous for some time; at about four years of age they become firm; at seven they are quite hard and well joined together. A new-born infant has a very soft and imperfectly matured brain ; it can neither see distinctly, walk, nor talk; all it can do for a great many weeks is to eat, sleep, and cry. Very few animals are born so helpless as a baby. By the time it is a year old its brain has grown to twice the size it was at its birth. Whata
Fic. 6.
Human skull in a natural state.
wonderful little creature it is then! It begins to walk, talk, and do a great many wonderful things, if it has a good and wise mother. A bit of brain grows every day, and then just enough bone grows to cover the new brain ; this is the reason why the bones of the skull are neither hard nor joined together when it is born. You will always find there is a wise reason for all the changes that take place as we grow older.
I dare say you have heard of the North American Indians. They are a wild race of men; they do not live in houses nor wear clothes, as we do; they think a baby’s head ought to be made flat, and not left as God made it. So they put the little child into a kind of long tub and place a hard piece of stuff over its forehead, and then they squeeze it down tight with strings for some time, until it grows to be like this picture. The eyes newly jump out of its head and are horrible to look
a
+ be
& we its ie ie ara
at. B can ea
la are SO treated many think
The sku the tor placed
bones mista] half tl
mem( such
all t ago,
her | brot! rest¢
THE SKULL. ao
at. By beginning directly the children are born, the shape can easily be changed, as the bones are soft.
I am sorry to tell you that in England, where we think-we are so clever and civilised, little babies are not much better treated than those of the North American Indians. A great many English nurses have the same silly notions. They too think they can make the shape better; so they often press the
Fia. 7.
The skull of a North American Indian flattened in infancy by means of pads placed on the top and held down by strings fastened to the sides of a tub in which the child was
placed.
bones of the baby’s head together. They must fancy it is a mistake that the bones are separated. Doctors do not know half the ignorant things which are done when their backs are turned.
I hope, after my deseription of the skull and all it contains, you will be careful and never strike each other on the head. A hard blow on the top of the head may take away both your memory and your sight. People have often been blinded by such a blow. A severe box on the ears may make you deaf all the rest of your life. My youngest brother, many years ago, tried to defend a poor woman who was being struck by her husband. The blow that was aimed at the wife fell on my brother’s ear, and to this day his hearing has not been perfectly restored.
Remember it is equally cruel to strike dumb animals on the head; I constantly see horses, donkeys, and all cattle struck on the head by their masters, who want to make the poor tired animals go faster. This is not the way to increase their epeed, for the blow only stuns and stupefies them, so
fae Se
=~ =.
ae =
SS ie
94 SKELETON—JOINTS AND MUSCLES.
thut, they neither know where they are going nor what they are doing.
Things provided for the Lecture. A human skull. Marshall's diagram of the skeleton. A picture of the deformed head of an American Indian, and a picture of a naturally-formed head.
Questions for the Third Lecture.
. Why do dumb animals require as much fresh air as human beings ?
. Tell me some of the reasons why butcher's meat is very dear.
. What does the skull contain ?
. Why is it very dangerous to press the bones of a new-born infant’s head together ?
5. Why is it very cruel and dangerous to strike a human being or a
dumb animal over the head?
m On =
LECTURE IV. SKELETON—JOINTS AND MUSCLES.
To-pay I am going to finish my account of the skeleton. I have still something more to say about the skull. Under this bony covering there is a tough membrane ;! beneath this is a very thin, smooth, moist membrane, and underneath this is the brain, which is itself closely covered by a third membrane, chiefly composed. of blood-vessels. The skull is covered by the skin, on which the hair grows; under this are muscles and tendons, and under these is a membrane which is closely connected with the bones. I am very anxious you should understand and remember that the bones of the head and their coverings afford avery good protection to the brain, because some mothers and nurses who have unfortunately never been taught physiology say that it is dangerous to wash a baby’s head, because, if you do, the water will cer- tainly run through into the brain, and give the child the disease called water on the brain. You will now understand
1 A membrane is a kind of skin.
eae Gas LE ee
that it happen. In FE Polonic be very
and gro A b
water m the reas
a is the fir bottom | a side v that sta from the top ring the heac head, fo instant] other.
matter out, to As we doors, and fo be kep
THE HEAD, 25
that it would be quite impossible that such a thing should happen.
In Poland there is a dreadful disease called ‘plica Polonica,’ which is generally caused by allowing the head to be very dirty. The hair becomes matted together and sticky and grows to a great length.
A. baby’s head requires to be washed with soap and water more than any other part of its body. I will tell you the reason why. You know there is a great deal of oily
a is the first bone or vertebra in the spine. It is a smooth ring, and is rastened to the bottom of the sku! j..t round the hole through which the spinal cord comes out; / is a side view of this vert: vra. 06 is the second vertebra ; it has a curious piece of bone that stands up in the font: you can see it in,e marked a. cis the same bone seen from the side. We can turn our head both to the right side and to the left, because the top ring can move about on the second ring, and the piece of bone that stands up keeps the head in its place. It is very dangerous to lift a child up from the ground by its head, for the top ring might be pulled off the tooth, and then a child or man would instantly die. d and e are the two first bones I have described placed one upon the other. gis the piece of bone coming through the top ring,
matter in our hair, and a great deal of this oily matter comes out, to nourish it, from the pores in the skin of the head. As we wear no covering to our heads unless we are out of doors, the dirt and dust in the air mix with the oily matter and form a kind of black paste. A baby’s head réquires to be kept cool; for that reason it has generally no hair. The
26 SKELETON—JOINTS AND MUSCLES.
sweat carries off the heat through the pores; but if all the pores are shut up, the sweat cannot get out, and the child’s head grows hot and feverish.
In England, Wales, and on the Continent, particularly in Italy and France, I have very often seen children with per- fectly black heads. By trying to remove this dirt when they get older, the mothers frequently give their children very sore heads. Now, if plenty of soap and water had been used from the first day, all this suffering would have been saved.
The head rests on the spine, or backbone, which you see in this picture.' There are twenty-six bones in the spine. I have brougu the seven bones that form the neck to show you. This is the top one, on which the head rests, and here is the second one, on which the head turns. This second bone has a kind of tooth or little spike. People should never lift a child up by its head, as by so doing they might perhaps lift the head partly off this little spike, and then the child would die instantly.
There is, you see, a hole through each of the bones that.
form the spine. It is through these holes that the spinal cord: goes, and it passes all down the backbone, or spine. Between each of these curious strong bones there is a little cushion of a substance something like gristle. You have seen the buffers that are placed between railway carriages. The railway buffers prevent the carriages from knocking hardly against each other. The little buffers between the bones of the spine also prevent them from knocking against each other and from shaking the spinal cord, which passes down from the brain. It is such a very delicate substance that even a violent shake has been known to injure it for life. You see there are twelve ribs on each side of the spine; they begin below the neck, which is made of these seven bones, and, together with the narrow flat bone in front of the chest, called the sternum, cover the heart and the two lungs. All this part of the ‘sody is called the trunk.?
I will describe what a joint is. A joint is the place whore two bones join together. On the left side of the figure of the skeleton you see that the bones are all fastened together by
' Marshal’’s diagram, p. 27, fig. 9. |? Marshall's diagram, No. 1, p. 20.
ston ghee Ga OT eee ee
Mee a Sh Sais sn ENE
strong t
which fo
Halt the sk bone, to safely gui brain an are by th
ings. a
i en” A
WHAT
A JOINT
IS.
27
trong bands, called ligaments. Usually the end of a bone which forms @ joint with another bone is covered over with a
Half the skull and baek- bone, to show how safely guarded both the brain and spinal cord are by their bony cover-
ings. a, big brain; 8,
little brain ; c, the spinal cord, This picture shows the different bones o/ the spine, and how it is curved to make it very
atrong.
tte he
ves
=
ate ee
hw
Me % ¥
feo’ yt
“* pee | ay
Poe ey
\ + A:
, is
;
28 SKELBLON—J INTS AND MUSCLES,
piece of gristle, called cartilage, and in those joints which we can move there isa bag between the two bones which con- tains a fluid like the white of an egg, improperly called joint- oil. This joint-oil makes the movement between the bones more easy. Lach of our fingers has three joints. The thumb has only two joints, as you can see, if you look at your hands. We have twenty-seven bones in each of our hands. Whena
Fia. 10.
Back view of the bones of the left hand, showing the (8) small bones next to the wrist joint, (9) the bones of the palm of the hand, and (10) the bones of the fingers, and the distinct portion and length of the thumb.
person breaks a finger, and it cannot be used for some time, it
becomes stiff; the so-called joint-oil too has almost all gone
away. And this is the case with all our joints; if they are not used the joint-oil gradually gets less and less, and they become stiff. Now, between certain joints of each of the bones of the spine there is joint-oil, a little of which comes out every time we move our backs. The top bone of the arm fits into the shoulder-blade, and forms what is called the cup-and-ball joint. There is a good deal of joint-oil in the bag that covers the top of these bones. It is easy to pull the hall out of the cup, and this accident often happens to little children. It is
called tough blade they turnil N by on quen his cf His t thoug him. arm, joint. at the would the ac The 3 pulle L cup-a is as thigk joint thigh body hip » our any beca It is Infi suff com you sit
wh
vrist | the
ve Abas eS SR
ee ee
THE HIP-JOINT. 29
called dislocation. The ball is kept in the cup by bands of tough membrane called ligament, that pass from the shoulder- blade to the arm. These bands are soft and flexible, and so they enable us to move our arms freely, as in skipping 01 turning the handle of a grinding-machine.
Nurses ought to be very careful not to drag children along by one arm, or hold them up by their arms, as they fre- quently do. A doctor told me that he has often stopped his carriage to beg a nurse not to drag the child by its arm. His trouble was all in vain, for the nurse, he said, evidently thought that he knew nothing about it; and did not attend to him. He saw his own nurse swinging his little girl by her arm, and told her that by doing so she might put it out of joint. This did at last happen. When his family were away at the sea-side he received a telegram from his wife to beg he would come to her directly. When he arrived he found that the accident which he had often foreseen had at last happened. The nurse had been swinging the child by its arms, and had pulled the ball out of the cup.
Let us next take the hip-joint. This joint is just like the cup-and-ball joint in the arm ; the only difference is that there is a strong ligament which passes across from the ball of the thigh-bone and is fastened to the cup of the hip-bone. This joint is plainly shown in this diagram of the skeleton.! The thigh-bone is the longest, largest, and heaviest bone in the body. The bands or ligaments which bind the bones of the hip together are immensely strong, because all the weight of our trunk rests upon this joint. Itis very difficult to cure . any disease of the hip, as it is not allowed any t.me to heal, because we cannot move our bodies without moving the hip. It is very sad to see so many little children in cur Leeds Infirmary who are suffering from hip complaints, and they do suffer most dreadfully. Doctors say children often get hip complaints from sitting on cold stones or damp grass, so that you must take care not to let your little brothers and sisters sit on anything damp or cold.
I shall never forget going to the Leeds Infirmary once, when I saw a boy of about twelve who was suffering from a
1 Marshall’s diagram, No. 1, page 20.
30 “KELEVON— JOINTS AND MUSCLES.
hip complaint. I went up te him and asxed him what had caused it. He told me that one day, when he was playing at marbles in the streets, a big boy came up and wanted to tease the little boys and take their marbles from them. At last they quarrelled, :and a number of lads took this boy by his arms and legs, and dragged him over the road, When he tried to get up and walk home he found he could not move, After suffering a long time at home he was taken by his father to the Infirmary, and then the doctors found his hip-joint was injured, his spine hurt, and his ankle-joints had been twisted. No boy, Iam sure, would have been so cruel as to do this if he had only understood the dreadful sufferings his thoughtless conduct might cause.
In diseases of the hip-joint people cannot bear the slightest shake. I had a dear little friend who died from a
Fig. 11.
Side view of the bones of the left foot, showing the projection of the heel at 2, the arch which the bones make at 3; the strength of the bones of the great toe (9, 10, 11, 12); a is where the leg-bone joins the ankle. In the ankle, asin the wrist of the hand, there are several bones. : ‘complaint in the hip. If anyone walked across the room in the very gentlest manner, she was thrown into an agony of pain. Mr. Wheelhouse told me it was no wonder she suffered so dreadfully, because the top of the ball, which is covered in health with a very soft covering, had come away and left the hard bone to scratch against the cup, in which there was an abscess. Nurses who don’t understand about the hip-joint often scold children for crying when they are moved.
The knee-joint '-has a little bone that is placed over the front of it; it is called the knee-cap: it guards the knee. joint: Little children constantly fall, and they would often be hurt if the little cushion which thera is on the front of
* Marshall’s diagram, No. 1, page 20,
PERI PETLEIE TEND FONG ONE gS
this kn who kn often b towel or in the n
Im There feet hav will see longest
as I t hope y' which T dare : little | animal outang outer € with if made ° them, Chine: nature with s
SUP RNSEIR I En cg
‘THE FOOT. 3k
this knee-cap did not save them when they fall. In women who kneel to scrub floors or stone steps this little cushion often becomes very much inflamed. They ought to get a towel or some straw, and make it round, so that a hole is left in the middle for the knee-cap to drop into.
I must now tell you how wonderfully our feet are made. There are a great number of bones and joints in the foot. The feet have to bear all the weight of our bodies. Very often you will see dancers stand on one foot, or even on the tips of their longest toes. The foot is made in the form of an arch, because,
Fie, 12.
Natural foot.
as I told you, an arch is the strongest form we can make. I hope you will never wear tight boots nor high heels, but those which have good broad soles ; and take care the soles are thick. I dare say you have often heard your mothers say to one of your little brothers, ‘Now stand like a man.’ It is a fact that no animal can stand erect upon its feet like a man. The ourang- outang can stand upright nearly, but it always stands on the outer edge of its feet, supporting itself in walking and running with its long @rms touching the ground. Shoes ought to be made very wide at the bottom, so that we can stand firmly in them, and have plenty of room to move our joints about. The Chinese think it very vulgar for ladies to be useful and have natural-sized feet, so they bind a baby’s feet, if it is a girl, with strong bands, to prevent it from growing. When they grow up, these poor ladies are scarcely able to move about.
T must now describe the. muscles. You see these bundles
32: SKELETON—-JOINTS AND MUSCLES.
of flesh in this drawing ;! they seem to be p!.ited over the bone of the arm. Lach of these bundles of muscles contains perhaps three hundred little fibres, or threads, of flesh, When I use my arm I sometimes wish to stretch it ¢ "4 and make it long, and then I want to pull it up and make it short. The reason why I can do this is because all these little threads of flesh are both elastic and able to contract; that is, they can stretch out and go together again, like this piece of india- rubber. We all ought to know how to make these muscles strong and firm, because, unless they are strong, we can do no work. There is only one way of making them strong, and
Fia. 13.
Chinese foot, that has been pressed into this strange shape by bandages when the child was an infant.
that is by using them. You have all seen a blacksmith work- ing in his shop. A blacksmith has to use his arms a great deal when he hammers out the hot iron. No man has stronger muscles in his arm than the blacksmith. Just ask one to let you feel his arm, and you will find that he can make it nearly as hard as the iron he hammers all day. In countries where there are no telegraph wires men carry the messages and run great distances, and the consequence is the muscles of their legs grow very strong. There is a very strong muscle that passes down the back part of the spine, and others which go down the front part of it. They keep all the twenty-six bones of the spine together, and they enable us 1o bend up and down, because they can stretch and go together again. If we dun’t use these muscles, our spines grow weak. When these muscles and ligaments are weak, or very often in conse-
1 Marshall's diagram, No. 4, page 40, letter M.
quence { becomes cases, th bent or
I de About
This pic the ne by tig
hands all th them was C weak nasiu wonc many how
I
pte
7S
THE MUSCLES, 88
quence of a fall, the bones get out of their places, the spinc becomes weak, and the back curved and twisted. In other cases, the bones become diseased, and then the back becomes bent or ‘ humped.’
I dare say you have heard of a country called Greece. About two thousand years ago the Greek people were the
Fia. 14,
This picture shows how the heart, lungs, liver, and stomach, are placed in the body. On the next page is a picture which shows how these organs are pushed out of their places
by tight lacing.
handsomest and cleverest people in the world; they made all the boys and girls learn a great deal, but they also made them run, walk, and play a great deal, because they said it was quite impossible to have a healthy mind if the body was weak, Perhaps you have been to what is called a gym- nasium, a place where people jump and do all kinds of wonderful things. We have no doubt learnt how to perform many wonderful feats by reading Greek books that told ns how to do them.
Boys are much better off than girls, for they play at some
a Serio
SSpe=- ee
a
= as &, pone - ne Spent oe 4
34 SKELETON——JOINTS AND MUSCLES,
good game every day, either cricket or foot-ball. Girls have
just the same muscles as boys, which can only be made strong by constant use, and yet they are scarcely ever allowed to exercise them. The consequence is that women more fre- quently have spinal complaints than men, which make them helpless and causes them great suffering. Not only are girls
Fie. 15.
The organs pushed ont of their places by tight lacing.
made to sit for hours every day in one position, at school or when sewing, without any rest to their spines, but they are made to wear stays, which prevent their muscles from moving about. Grecian women had beautiful figures, but they were not allowed to wear such barbarous things as stays. Their dresses were loose, and consequently very elegant. Here is a picture of a person who has worn tight stays (Madame Bodi- chon’s drawing enlarged). You sce the heart and lungs, and
other «
great becaus their \ intellis with t' a pub @ mast way. other
A pie
stre Marst Mars! Mada
sta} A pic A pic Verté
hol
HE MUSCLES, 85
other organs, are completely pushed out of their places, A great many tailors and dressmakers die of consumption because they have to sit still so many hours, stooping over their work in bad air. I trust tailors will soon become too intelligent to think it is necessary they should sit on a board with their legs crossed and their backs bent. While going over a public institution the other day I was extremely sorry to see a master teaching little boys of ten and upwards to sit in this way. Itis bad enough for men to sit with their lungs and other organs crushed up, but it must be much worse for grow- ing lads to have to remain in such a position for several hours.
Not long ago an English doctor travelled through a part of Africa where he found that the women did all the hard work, and the men stayed at home and took care of the houses and minded the children, The women’s muscles had become by this means much stronger than those of the men. This experience made him believe that women after all are not born weakerthan men. Itis only because they are brought up less sensibly than men that their frames are so much more delicate.
Things provided for the Lecture.
A piece of whalebone and elastic to show the difference between the stretching of the muscles and bending of the ligaments.
Marshall’s diagram of the skeleton,
Marshall’s diagram of the muscles.
Madame Bodichon’s enlarged picture of the organs distorted by tight stays, and her picture of them in their natural state.
A picture of a Chinese foot altered by having been bound up.
A picture of a well-formed foot from nature.
Vertébre of the neck, with a thick skein of white wool run through the holes to represent the spinal cord.
Questions for the Fourth Lecture.
1. How many coverings are there to the brain?
2. Why is it more necessary to wash an infant’s head with soap than any other part of its body ?
8. Why is it dangerous to swing a child round by its arms?
4. What must we do to make our muscles strong ? Why do more girls suffer from spinal complaints than boys?
D2
+ “ ie ~ ' ' t ‘
‘=o? - ~ sito
*
a ae - 7. > ae -
~ 2S
ae
36 THE CIRCULATION.
LECTURE V.
THE CIRCULATION.
Berore I begin to describe the circulation of the blood I should like you to understand what an organ is. No doubt you have often heard people speak of the organs of the body. Anorgan is an instrnment which does something.
The organ of the body I am going to tell you about to-day is the heart.! I have brought you the same beantiful model of one which I had at my first lecture. This wonderful little organ, or instrument, has to do a very great deal of hard work, as you will think, I am sure, when I tell you that it sends blood to every p..t of our body in about half a minute. We have at least forty. organs, or places, in the body where something is done, and the active part of each of these forty organs ought to be entirely re-made in about forty days.
The forty. different organs are made of different substances. Our blood also contains at least forty different substances. I have in these bottles some of those substances. I have chosen a few whose names you will all know—salt, soda, fat and other substances rich in sugar, iron, lime, phosphorus, albumen, and carbon. Perhaps you have never heard before the name of the last substance. I shall have a great dea! to tell you about carbon in all my lectures. Charcoal is almost pure car- bon. I have written on this sheet that coal, fat, sugar, starch, all contain a great quantity of carbon, The purest carben is the diamond. The ring I have on my finger is made of pure carbon, because it isa diamond. If I were to put my ring into a very hot furnace indeed, it would burn as a piece of coal or fat will. It is mixed with no other substance; and for that reason it is called an element, which means that it is made of only one thing. Carbonic acid gas sounds a litiJe like car. bon, but they are very different things, as you will soon learn.
Our bones are surrounded by two things—fiesh and fat.
’ Here I showed Auzoux’s model.
RAMEN TEEN TR i
ane ativan ccuatesosoate: Cot
SUBSTANCES IN THE BLOOD. 37
Now, flesh and fat are entirely different sabstances, and this | hope to make you clearly understand before I finish my lec- tures. You see I have three bottles all standing in a row together. They contain lime, gelatine, and phosphorus. Here is @ common match, that has some phosphorus at the end of it. Gelatine, which is glue, is made from bones by boiling them. Lime you often see your mothers use when they whitewash the walls or ceilings of your houses. Our bones are made almost entirely of these three things. All the 206 bones in the body ought to be firm and strong when a child is seven years old; but if a child has not been fed on food that contains the three things 1 have just mentioned—lime, phosphorus, and gelatine—its bones wii! not be firm, and it will grow up a poor miserable little ricketty creature : its legs will be crooked; its little frame will be too weak to support the flesh ; the bones in the spine will give way, and it will be deformed. You have all seen poor little men and women with big heads and small bodies. They are called dwarfs. A lady in Leeds not long ago counted the number of cripples, dwarfs, and ricketty chil- dren who passed by her house as they were coming from the mills, I dare not say how many she counted.
It is no use to buy lime, gelatine, and phosphorus in a druggist’s shop ; these three things must be in the food we eat, or else they will not make bone. There is only one kind of food that contains these three things, and all the many substances that the blood requires. Itis milk.
Here is the blade-bone robbed of its earthy matters, that is, of its lime and phosphorus, by soaking it in an acid, so that it appears somewhat as it would be if a child had not been fed on milk, You see itis quite soft. I can bend it any way, because it only contains the animal matter which gives us in boiling the gelatine, no lime nor phosphorus. It is said that for every rich man’s child that dies poor men lose three, because their wives go out to work, or to nurse those rich men’s children, and do not give their own babies the milk God intended they should have.
I will now describe the circulation of the blood. When anything circulates it must set off from a certain spot, and it must return to that same spot again. Now I will prove that all
ee = ee
Fee <s og or ee
ig Se -F +f ip eae
cs
Sateen fase
a ee ~: —_ = a — : Se GS = noe Ae ai Y ge A ik Ta at ‘a :
38 THE CIRCULATION.
our blood leaves a spot, the bottom part of the left side of the heart, and returns to exactly the same spot after it has nourished nearly every part of our bodies; therefore it will have circu- lated. I wish to tell you that the heart can do this wonderful work in abcut three minutes. The heart of a man is about the sizo of his fist; the heart of a ‘baby is also the size of its fist. Our hearts, which are made chiefly of contractile flesh or muscles, are divided down the middle by a strong wall of flesh ; the good clean blood is all kept on the left side; all the dirty blood is on the right side. Some big tubes, called arteries, carry all the good blood from the left side of the heart to every part of the body. I have written the word artery on this sheet, and painted it a bright red, because the good blood is a bright red, as it contains a great deal of oxygen gas. The arteries are very strong tubes; they have three coats. In the onter coat there are some elastic fibres which permit the artery to stretch out lengthways. The coat underneath this has muscles which go round the arteries, and make them come together or contract. By this means the arteries keep stretching out and pulling in, and so force the blood on, so that it flies about to every part very fast. There is a third coat inside those I have described ; it is beautifully smooth, so that the blood may easily pass over it.
I will now point out to you the large arteries in the lower part of the body. There are thousands and thousands of little arteries which spread out from the larger arteries to every spot of the body. Thongh the good blood flies along so quickly, it finds time to feed the forty organs with fresh stuff, and also to carry away the parts of the organs that have be- come worn out. I will tell you how this is done in the next lecture. Don’t yon think itis very wonderful ? Ofcourse the blood at last becomes very dirty. Dirty blood would not feed the organs; it would only make them unhealthy and diseased. How is the dirty blood to be carried away and made clean ?
I will tell you how it is managed. Every artery has a servant that carries away the dirty blood up to the right side of the heart, through which all the dirty blood is sent on to the lungs. This servant is called a vein. It is a strong pipe of membrane, but not so strong as an artery, though it has
three sl arteries every 2
very P
2&2 ©
N © 80 @
ARTERIES AND VEINS. 3U three skins. I told you that there were thousands of little arteries ; there must also be thousands of little veins, because every artery must have a vein fastened to the end of it ina very peculiar way, to carry away the dirty blood. All the
Fic. 16.
b) \ This diagram shows the great artery called the aorta separated from the heart. 1 is the part of the artery that is fastened to the left side of the heart, where all the good blood is held. 2 and 2 are the arteries that carry the good blood into the arms; 3 and 3,
those that carry the blood into the head ; 4, artery which divides into three branches to feed the stomach, liver, and spleen; 5, arteries that go to the kidneys; 8 8, arteries
that carry the good blood into the lower parts of the body and legs. veins in the body join together and make two big veins. They are to be seen in this picture (fig. 18, page 42, marked 1).'!| This upper vein, called the superior or upper vena cava,
brings all the dirty blood from the head and upper limbs, and this other below it, marked 2, called the inferior or lower vena
1 Marshall's diagram, fig. 16.
40° THE CIRCULATION
Tic. 17.
tg
‘i DA an,
View of the chest (or th ; orax) and the abd
been cut 4 he abdomen, T :
from ae aes ae ae heer Npaandemen. mee tie taea tie aan mee heart has also been remo art A is left; the bag ( i i een taken away
ved, The t i g (or pericardium) which p, the puim neart is held b ; ich holds the great Bs ooaupct artery, that takes the bad blood into. te newt jpeg d the left side of the heart ; ¢, arries the good blood t eaned ; a, the 3c, the i ; 0 all parts of tt . the dirty blood into th» t c, the great vein (superior or upper venac 1e body from body, and the other vein (inferior the right sideof the! ena cava) that brings all ferior orl heart from the u blood from th (in r lower vena cava), mar the upper parts of the bod om fh rans he abdomen an he owe arts of oy ap in he ete ian t vec ater tite Ath ait Tk The ties t g Shrongh Me Maphregm s going into and } , is seen in its natural i ; water from the ki . out of it. The : position with nearly conasntel aay eg BL ieee be seen haland to tne "hinder, ete * Fe ; Se > 3 S s 2 + pipe like the left kidney. 1, the blad day, een Roe been taken away ; it Nergh Ay '? ss
cava, 18 body up dirty bla Remem| through run fro right si and 3, rooms, doors, ounces the litt We wi into th the vel other a three 0 little h pulmo: of a be ought other left sic door, ° the se reach red at many broug off fi body: valve
I
we h
at t pum fro
and
of tl
COURSE OF THE BLOOD. 41
cava, is carrying all the dirty blood from the lower part of the body up to the heart. These two veins pour all the black dirty blood into the top part of the right side of the heart, 3. Remember there is a very strong wall of flesh that goes down through the middle of the heart, 6. Nota drop of blood can run from the right side into the left side of the heart. In the right side of the heart there are two rooms or chambers, 2 and 3, and in the left side of the heart there are also two rooms, 10 and11. All these rooms have most curious little doors, called valves, which open and shut. About three ounces of blood will flow into each room at a time, and then the little door will shut and not allow any more to pass in. We will now suppose that three ounces of dirty blood enter into the top room on the right side. When the door from the vein is shut behind it, the blood will flow through the other door, which will close in the same way. Directly the three ounces of blood get into the bottom room the wonderful little heart wiil pump it all through particular pipes, called pulmonary arteries, into the lungs, where it is made clean and of a beautiful bright red colour by the oxygen which the lungs ought to contain. The clean blood will then be carried by other pipes called pulmonary veins, to the top room on the left side of the heart. Three ounces will flow through the top door, which will then shut; the blood will then pass through the second door, which will then instantly close. Directly it reaches the bottom room the heart will pump it into this large red artery, called the aorta (p. 39), which will carry it by many branches to every part of the body. You see I have now brought the clean blood back to exactly the same spot it set off from; therefore it has circulated over every part of the body. I will show you the four rooms and the doors, or valves, in this model when the lecture is over.
Before I conclude my lecture I will explain why it is that: we hear our hearts beat. You see the heart comes to a point at the lowest part, where the two rooms are placed which pump up the blood. Now, the heart in pumping out the blood from these two rooms forces this pointed part against the ribs, and so makes that sonnd or noise which we call the beating of the heart.
THB CIRCULATION.
Fis. 18.
1 ONLY culates must n Iw up to t their § blood. tains— not fo) View of the heart with its several chambers exposed, and the large blood-vessels that and dc pie either carry away the blood from these chambers or bring blood into them. 1, superior dealiay or upper vena cava; 2, inferior or lower vena cava; 3, the upper chamber called the eal O| re right auricle ; 4, the lower chamber called the right ventricle ; 5, the line marking * into tl \ separation between the two chambers ; 6, the wall of flesh that separates thi two sides | | of the heart, called the septum ; 7, the pipe which carries away the dirty blood fi om senses the lower chamber, on the right side marked 4, into the lungs, and is therefore called the pulmonary artery; at 8, the artery divides and sends one branch into the right W lung and the other into the left lung; 9, the four pipes called pulmonary veins, because ¢ the they bring the good blood back into the heart and into the upper chamber marked 10; (0) 12, the great artery called the aorta which carries away the good blood co feed every that 1 part of the body, from the left lower chamber, marked 11. other ; : nourl Things provided for the Lecture. : away Marshall’s diagram showing the circulation. vein - Auzoux’s papier-maché model of the heart. vane: : Bottles of some of the forty substances contained in the blood. clinics A sheet with all the difficult words used during the lecture. A blade-bone deprived by means of an acid of its earthy matter, and one pass properly nourished. from mad
Questions for the Fifth Lecture.
1. What is an organ ?
2. About how many different things does our blood contain? What is the name of the only food that contains the substances necessary to feed the blood ?
3. Name the three things that almost entirely make our bones ?
4, What are the names of the pipes that carry our good blood ?
§. What are the pipes that carry our bad blood ?
6. Describe the heart and all you can remember about the circulation.
one
bis
43
LECTURE VI. THE CIRCULATION (continued).
1 onty described to you in my last lecture how the biood cir- cvlates through the body, or trunk, and the lower limbs. I must now tell you how it circulates through the head and arms.
I will first point out the large arteries that take the blood up to the head. Ofcourse, close by their side will be the veins, their servants, as I have called them, to carry away the bad blood. You all know how many precious organs the skull con- tains—the organs of sight, hearing, taste, and smell. We must not forget the brain, which gives us the power of thinking and doing what we wish todo. All these organs require a great deal of good blood. Directly the heart cannot pump up blood into the head the brain stops working, and then we lose our senses, faint away, and cannot remember anything.
When the good blood is pumped from the bottom chamber of the left side of the heart some part goes up into the arteries that branch off into the arms and head and neck, whilst the other part goes into the trunk and lower limbs. After it has nourished the different organs in the head the veins carry away the dirty blood, and bring it all back into this large vein that is on the right side of the heart. Th n, as you will remember, three ounces of it will flow through into the top chamber, or room, of the right side of the heart. Then it will pass through the little door, or valve, into the bottom room, from which it will be pumped into the lungs, where it will be made clean, and the colour will becoms a bright red. The blood will then be taken by arteries int.) the top ronm of the left side, where the good blood is kept, ‘iow through the little door into the bottom chamber, where is will be squeezed or pumped out into the big artery called the ‘ aorta,’ when it will fly along to every part of the body at a tremendous rate. This wonderful little organ will keep on working day and night. Should it cease its work for one minute we should die.
I said I would tell you in this lecture where the blood runs out of the blood-vessels t» feed the bedy and all the organs (every pipe that carries blood is called a blood-vessel). Yor
Y NY pikes at f
f
ie
ye me % wi ty ale fe He ae ay Wes! Seal i
44, THE CIRCULATION,
will be astonished to hear that not a drop of blood can pass through the walls or skin of either nn artery or a vein. There are most wonderful little pipes called capillaries: they come between every small artery and vein and join them together by a sort of network of pipes. It is through the sides of these small pipes that the blood runs out to feed the body and all the organs. The capillaries have only one skin, and are finer than a single hair of our head.
You see these two glass pipes which are intended to repre- sent an artery and a vein, and between them there is a small twisted pipe. Now, it is the twisted pipe which represents a single capillary, through the coat of which the biood escapes. Though these little capillaries are very often much twisted aboat, there is always a passage or road through them, so that the blood from an artery can run through them to a vein. T will now pour into the artery what we will suppose to be pure blood. You see that the blood continues a beautiful bright red until it comes to the vein, when it becomes a dark bluish- black colour: the reason of this is that the oxygen gas and some of the good blood have run through the walls of the capillary into the flesh to feed the body and organs, and the dirty blood, which is full of carbonic acid gas and worn-out stuff of the body, has come into the capillary and passed up into the vein. Certain materials in the good blood and the bad blood have changed places, because the good blood was light and the bad blood was heavy. A. capillary won’t allow two things that have the same weight to exchange places with each other through its skin. I will now show you a little experiment to illustrate this. Here is a pipe filled with some water that has sugar and a little red colouring matter in it. This end of the pipe is covered over with the same kind of skin that a capillary is made of. When I hold this end down no water runs through the skin. I willnow put the pipe into this tumbler of clear water that has no sugar in it; therefore the water in the tumbler will not weigh so heavy as the water in the pipe, because there is sugar in the pipe-water, and for that reason the capillary skin will allow the heavy sugar-and- water to run through into the tumbler, and the clear water to pass up into the pipe. I should like a little boy or girl to
come up just to b shall soo the skin red. Thi is also st of them
change | This bal capillary In a sho empty, | the skin which i As » blood cé should in ever these li blood, : they ar
smalle: the fle becaus It for yo ries. blood immet that throu
THE CAPILLARIES. 45
come up and taste the tumbler-water before I put the pipe in, just to be sure that there is no sugar in the tumbler. We shall soon see whether any of the pipe-water has run through the skin, because it is red and will make the tumbler-water rel. This other pipe contains some sugar-and-water, and there is also sugar-and-water in this tumbler; you will find neither of them will change places. A heavy gas and a light gas will change places with each other through the skin of a capillary. This balloon, which is made of the same kind of skin as a capillary, is filled with the heaviest gas—carbonic acid gas. Tn a short time you will see that the balloon will become nearly empty, because the carbonic acid gas will have passed through the skin into the air in the room, and the air in the room, which is light, will have entered the balloon.
As it is only through the coat of the capillaries that the blood can pass out to feed the body, it is necessary that we should have an immense number of them, and they must be in every spot in our bodies. Directly the blood gets hot these little tubes grow bigger and swell with the heat of the blood, and so do the little arteries and veins between which ‘hey are placed.
I will now explain to you why our faces grow red-—that is, why we blush. When we are ashamed or angry our faces grow hot. Then all these little pipes swell and more blood than usual runs through them into the flesh and skin, and so makes our faces appear very red. When we are frightened we grow cold. Cold makes nearly everything become smaller; and all these little tubes, whether veins, arteries, or capillaries, grow smaller, very little blood can get into them and run through the flesh and skin, and our faces must naturally grow white, because there is scarcely any blood to be seen through the skin.
It is much more dangerous to cut an ar'ery than a vein, for you see that the blood pours from the heart into thc arte- ries. If an artery was cut and you could ot stop it, all the blood in the body would soon be drawn out. A string should immediately be tied very tightly above the cut in this way, that is, nearer to the heart,! to prevent the blood escaping through the cut.
' Showed a red Jeather pipe with a cut in it and a black string tied above,
46
THE CIRCULATION.
A man was once reaping in a field, and cut the large artery in his leg. The blood jumped out in jerks, so much at a time. Doctors can tell at once, by the way the blood is jerked out, that it is an artery, and not a vein, that is cut, for the blood passes much more slowly and evenly through the veins, Now, the other reapers in the field crowded round him and began to cry out for help, which unfortunately did not stop the bleeding. A girl ran up to him, took off her garter, and tied it tightly round the part above the cut in this way, and it very soon stopped the bleeding. She saved the man’s life, as he would have died before a doctor could have reached him. Every man and woman ought to learn how to act in case of such an accident.
The blood in the veins runs more slowly than in the arte- ries, about one-half or one-third more slowly, for in the veins the blood has much wider channels to travel through than in the arteries. At certain distances there are little doors in the veins which shut directly a certain quantity of blood has passed through them, just as the door in a mouse-trap closes when a mouse has passed in. These little doors sometimes become weak, and will not shut and open as quickly as they ought to do, so that the blood collects in the veins. Veins in this state are called varicose veins; and washerwomen and men who, like them, have to stand a great deal, suffer very much from this complaint. These veins are placed near the skin. The arteries are placed much deeper down, to prevent their being injured. Large arteries are very near the bones in a kind of little gutter. The best thing to do when anyone has a complaint called varicose veins is to keep the limb up as much as possible, and to rub the blood up, and help it to get through the little doors on its way to the heart.
A maid-servant of ours had a very bad leg caused by these varicose veins. A doctor told me to let her wear some elastic stockings, that would keep the veins up, and she found they did her a great deal of good. In such cases you can see the veins with their black blood spreading out under the skin like the branches of a tree.
Now, it is very dangerous for a person with a weak heart, —that is, when those little doors in the heart do not open and
shut ver either u
surroun work th press t' quickly let it pa into the all over For how th though air, A Harvey terics ¢ and the of the | the ca arteriet were 1 ful en know had be inven that a fine lit united
ARTERIES AND VBINS. 47
shut very perfectly—to run to catch a train, or to go quickly either up a hill or up a flight of stairs. The muscles which surround the veins move very quickly when we run, and they work the blood up towards the heart just 1s we do when we press the veins up with our hands. Blood then gets too quickly to the heart. ‘The doors cannot open fast enough to let it pass through to the bottom rooms, where it is pumped into the lungs to be cleaned, and into the big artery to be carried all over the body.
For many hundred years doctors were trying to discover how the blood was carried over the body. It was generally thought, I believe, that the arteries only carried a spirit or air, About two hundred years ago a doctor named William Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood—that the ar- teries carried the good blood from the left side of the heart, and the veins brought back the dirty blood to the right side of the heart, and so on. But he did not know anything about the capillaries; he thought the blood ran out through the arteries and veins to feed the organs. In these times there were no magnifying glasses or microscopes which were power- ful enough to enable him to see the capillaries, which you kuow are too fine to be seen by the naked eye. When Harvey had been dead several years, very powerful microscopes were invented, and Malpighi was then able, with their help, to see that at the end of every small artery there is a network of fine little pipes, or capillaries, as they are called, which is also united at the other end to a vein.
Quadrupeds, or four-footed animals, and birds, have hearts like ours; but in reptiles there are only three rooms in the heart, and in fishes only two. By means of a heart their blood is also carried through arteries, veins, and capillaries. The skin in a frog’s foot is very transparent, and so thin and clear that you can see through it, and watch the blood flying through the capillaries that are twisted about. Blood looks white, not red, in them. Doctors often place the foot of a live frog under the microscope. Of course you could not see the circulation unless you looked through very powerful glasses. There is only one skin to a capillary, and therefore we can see through it. It would be impussible to see
48 THE CIRCULATION.
through an artery or a vein, because they have three skins.
I will now show you a model of the chest containing the two lungs, and the heart lying between them. I will point out the large artery called the aorta, and I will show you the two large veins that bring the dirty blood back to the left side of the heart, called the upper vena cava and the lower vena cava. This time I will open the heart, and let you see the doors or valves that lead into the bottom rooms.
Things provided for the Lecture,
Marshall’s diagram showing the circulation.
Glass artery, vein, and capillary.
Auzoux’s paper-mAché model of a heart.
A spirit lamp.
| 1. To show what is called osmosis, I had a small glass tube which con-
| tained pink-coloured water with some sugar in it, the top of the tube being covered with a thin membrane. This I first placed in a tumbler of water which also had sugar in it, with the top of the tube downwards : the liquids being of the same density, no exchange took place. I next placed it in a tumbler of clear water, when both sugar and colouring
. matter came through the skin which covered the top of the tube, and
4 sweetened the water in the tumbler, whilst water also passed into the
tube.
2. To show that an exchange takes place between gases of different densi- ties I have a small balloon made of a thin membrane filled with carbonic acid gas. The gas escapes through the membrane and leay:« the balloon with a small quantity of ordinary air.
To show how to stop an artery I tied a string above a cut that was made in a soft red leather tube.
A sheet with all difficult words written large for children to copy.
Questions for the Sixth Lecture.
1, As no blood can run through the coats or sides of an artery or vein, how does the blood get out to feed the body and the forty organs ?
2. Why do our faces become very red when we are ashamed, or white when we are frightened ?
3. If an artery was cut, how would you stop it from bleeding?
4. Why is it dangerous for people who have heart complaints to run to
catch a train or to go quickly up a hill or up a flight of stairs ?
fat co? this be here ; wick | some ¢ substa candle must | very | you W it lon shoul say th from is exa swee] swept shou engin chim Wat will vapo sant
q:)
49
LECTURE VII. RESPIRATION,
1 am going to-day to explain how the heat in our bodies is made, and how the blood is cleaned in the lungs.
I told you that charcoal is nearly pure carbon, and that fat contains a large quantity of it. Here is some charcoal in this bottle; you see it is a black substance. I have a candle here; there is a great deal of fat all round the wick. The wick of a candle is only made of cotton. I will now turn some of the fat which is in the candle into carbon—a black substance. I must have heat first, or I could not make the candle change at all: nothing can be changed without heat. You must all of you remember this. The candle is now lighted and very hot, and I will hold a white plate over the top of it, and you will see that the plate will become very black. If I held it long enough all the candle would have burnt away, and I should have a great deal of this black substance. You will say that that black stuff is only smoke, the same that comes from all the chimneys in Leeds when coal is burnt ; and so it is exactly the same substance as the smoke and the soot that sweeps come and carry away in large sacks when they have swept our chimneys. It is very wrong that so much carbon should be wasted, for it is not at all necessary. A careful engine-driver will not allow any smoke to come out of his chimney; he burns every bit of coal he puts on his fire. Watch and see the next engine that is passing by, and you will find that only steam, which is water turned into gas or vapour, not smoke, comes out of the chimney. What a plea- sant town Leeds would be if we had no smoke! We should be more healthy, and also save our moncy as well as use less coal. Coal, it is said, is growing very scarce.
I have a spirit-lamp here. Pure spirit contains only a little carbon. You see the wick of this lamp is much larger than the wick of a candle. You will find when I light it, that the wick will not grow black like the wick of a candle, nor
‘
_ > a =="
“* st ss =
a . — <— —Z “= ope - -
— 2.
os Bex
2.
Pues —_—
a a
< —s =
2 ~~ t- > -
~ So ae ee a “" :
ay = Se tee ee eee ? ater 5 -- Glad se aman > a = ~
> ee
> = ae
50 RESP RATION,
will the white plate become covered with smoke when I hold if over the lamp, because I have not been burning fat, but spirit, or alcohol. |
When you burn anythirg I dare say you think the thing you have burnt is quite destroyed—that it is no longer to be found in the world—bat you must never think that any more. God does not allow us either to destroy or to waste any of the matter that He has made. By burning we only change the thing we burn intu something else. I have now burnt about
an inch of this candle—that is, I have turned a great part of
that inch of fat into this black stuff, and I have also madc some carbonic acid gas. Carbon is very fond of oxygen gas. Directly they come together hot, they make a great deal mor heat, and very often a flame of fire.
Here is a bottle of oxygen gas, and here is a piece of vhar- coal which is nearly all made “f carbon. The charcoal is hot, you observe; I will put it into the oxygen, and you will see what a bright flame and what a great deal of heat is made. This candle has just a little spark of light on it. I will put it into this other bottle of oaygen, and it will also burst into « flame, and cause great heat. This bottle, you know, was full of oxygen a minute ago, and made the lighted candle burn so brightly; but the oxygen and carbon have joined together, and have made a new substance, carbonic acid gas, There is no free oxygen left. The bottle is now full of carbonic acid gas; this I will prove te you, for directly I put a lighted candle into it the light will go out. Ifa great many candles are burning in a room they will fill the air with carbonic acid gas, because the carbon in the candle will join with the oxygen that is in the air of the room and make carbonic acid gas, The flame of one candle will require as much oxygen as a man needs to keep his blood pure, and the candle wiil also make au equal quantity of carbonic acid gas. There is a great deal of carbon in gas. One gas-light will use as much oxygen as three men, and make three times as much carbonic acid gas. - No wonder that people feel very sleepy and faint in theatres, workshops, and churches, which are crowded, badly ventilated, and |'+hted by gas or by a great many candles In nurseries where children sleep, or in bedrooms-—particularly where in.
valids : is larg Ne
joining and a where the bl Fi pipe. heart. becor one h Each kept : lies b The 1 and t lined It is: plain flamy lungs jung
affec
hold | but
hing 0 be ore. f the b the bout rt of adc gas, more
har. hot, 1] see ade. but it nto «1 s full rm so ther, re is acid ‘hted adles acid ygen The man aake deal
n as
gas,
bres,
ted,
Tries
ine
THE LUNGS AND WINDPIPE. 51
valids are placed—gas ought not to be used, unless the room is large and very well ventilated.
Nearly all the heat there is in the world, and nearly all the heat we have in our bodies, is nade by oxygen and carbon joining together. Our Kood contains a great deal of carbon and an immense quantity of oxygen. I will now explain where the oxygen meets the carbon in our bodies, and how the blood is made clean and hot in the lungs.
First of all I must tell you about the lungs and wind- pipe. We have two Imngs; one lies on each side of the heart. This is a meraiful arrangement, as, in case one lung becomes diseased, there is another left. People with only one healthy lung hays been known to live fer a long time. Each lung is covere+ by a bag of membrane, which is always kept moist, so that st can move easily about. The heart, that lies between them, is also held in a moist bag of membrane. The lungs and heart are protected and covered by tl. ribs and the breast-bone. The back and front of the chest are lined by the same membrane or skin which covers the lungs. It is called the ‘pleura.’ You have heard, perhaps, of a com- plaint called ‘ pleurisy.’ This complaint is saused by an in- flammation of the skin that lines the chest and covers the lungs. Sometimes only one of the two bags which hold the iungs becomes inflamed, occasionally both. When both are affected it is, of course, much more serious. Thé two lungs are quite separated from each other.
Next I must describe the windpipe. By the word wind- pipe I mean the pipe that leads down from the mouth into the lungs. The windpipe is wonderfully made. Here is 2 picture of it.' There are strong rings of gristle that near], go round the pipe; they are fastened to a band composed oi flesh that rnns down the back of the windpipe. If there were not these firm little rings to keep the windpipe stretched out. the sides of the pipe might fall together, and then no air could get into the lungs. A windpipe is a very good name for this tube, for it carries a!l the wind, or air, through the nose an’ mouth down into the lungs. When this curious pipe gets
' Seo diagram, page 5”. k 2
sete My
RT
See roe
¥ So . & , % ' .* ; ‘ . ve ' Da A; ta if rf L hahs : aoe ' a i: -a (min ras Ww > Aa '$ oy (fide Jy te tee hE 5 ‘ rf , tee ' ‘ ‘eye "4 ; » «6 a “ ‘4 . Ny; cae eh: i te “y oy fi Mayet RDA Fame, | v4 "tt : » + e. « ofa e *F , $ ~~ oe mi rae of ae ey s3 She Ew Gs. & H AP ty ie uP Re oe q at , : ee ae _ s fy ts Mh oa By | re yee eh tiene Bh. Be te 2 “4 : a, ie be ; Ve ae " oot we
re
: a ORE, fied
—
52 RESPIRATION,
down some way, it divides into two tubes, one of which, called a vt the right bronchus, goes into the right lung, and the other, called the left bronchus, into the left lung, and then from each of these thousands of little pipes, called bronchial tubes, f-anch out like the branches of a tree, only the branches gradually get smaller and smaller, until they become very fine, but not so fine as the hairs of our head. They end in
plood ec pipes, o air-blad to Ame fancy % into the I to livery | throug! pipe, @ and the tube. of the which oxygel passes made with ¢ the ca and vi that t a gree of all kept colou of ox oxygt its de every
prod
Fic. 19.
@ larynx, the box where the voice is made; 6, windpipe (or trachea), J is a lung in its naturalstate. On the other side is seen a lung, c, that has had the fleshy part (which is like a piece of sponge with thousands of little holes) taken away, so that the air-pipes, or bronchial tubes, which carry the air into the little holes, may be seen.
line little pipes, to which are fastened little cells or air- bladders.! Hach one of these air-bladders looks like a small white grape. There are, it is calculated, about six million ‘ittle air-cells in the two lungs.
You have all seen a piece of honeycomb; I have a piece , here. It is said that the lungs are very like a honeyeomb. i Now all round the outside of these air-cells there are very finc little pipes, the capillaries of the lungs, into which the dirty
and in Ww parts The bloo instil that if w
¥ ' T here showed a fine glass pipe which had a glass ball at the end of it.
HEAT OF THE BLOOD. 53
blood comes to be made pure. It is said that if all the little pipes, or capillaries, that are placed close together round the air-bladders were fastened together, they would reach across to America and back—five thousand miles. So you may fancy what an immense quantity of dirty blood can be put into them, though they are so fine and small.
I told you there was a great deal of carbon in the blood. livery time we take in a breath of good air oxygen flies down through our nose, and mouth too, if it is open, into the wind- pipe, and then into these little pipes (called bronchial tubes), and then eaters into these little air-bubbles at the end of each tube. The air, especially the oxygen, gets through the coats of the air-bladders into the blood—that is, into the capillaries which lie all round the outside of the air-bladders. As this oxygen goes into the blood from the air-cells, carbonic acid gas passes from the blood into the air-cells: and so the blood is made pure and bright. When, again, this oxygen meets with carbonaceous matters in the blood or in the body, it and the carbon meet, join together and make a great deal of heat and vapour, but not a flame, or we should be burnt up. So that the oxygen that runs down our windpipe not only makes a great heat when it unites with the carbon of the blood, and of all the tissues of the body, by which the heat of the body is kept up, but it turns the dirty dark blood into a-bright red colour, and makes it pure and clean. There is a great deal of oxygen in the arterial blood in the body. When this oxygen flies through the coats of the capillaries it meets with its dear friend carbon in every spot, for the: is a great deal everywhere. They join together and make a great heat, and produce carbonic acid gas,
The heat in our bodies is almost always the same, summer and winter. The hands and feet and face are all much colder in winter than in summer ; the blood gets colder just in those parts of the body which are not covered over with clothing. The cold air makes the capillaries very small, so that less blood can get into them. Doctors find out by this little instrument which I hold in my hand, called a thermometer, that the blood has always the same heat, swmmer and winter, if we are well—that is, about 9 degrees and a half. It is a
5A RESPIRATION.
little hotter in some parts of the body than in others. The word ‘thermometer’ means a measurer of heat. You see that there is a little glass pipe running down the middle of this thermometer. By the side of the pipe are dark lines, and each of the spaces between these lines is called a degree ; and there are figures which mark the number of degrees. At the end of the pipe you see a little glass ball. It is full of a substance called mercury, which looks like silver. I have often told you that heat makes nearly everything grow bigger, and cold makes nearly everything smaller. Now, mercury is a substance which grows hot and cold very quickly. Let us see where the mercury now stands. It is, T see, opposite 60°. The air in this room is therefore sixty degrees. Now I will put the thermometer into boiling water, which is much hotter than this room, and you will see that the merc ~y grows so big that it will run up through the little pipe nearly to the top, and stay by a figure that is marked 212°; and you will see written opposite to that figure ‘Boiling-point.”. The mercury tells you how hot or how cold the air of a room is, or any substance we put it into; it tells us the water is at boiling-point. When we give anyone a hot- water bath, we always ought to have a thermometer and put it into the water to tell us the proper heat. If the mercury goes beyond the proper heat for a hot bath, it will be too hot. Children are often put into water a great deal too warm. They are not only nearly scalded, but very much weakened, by the great heat, all because the nurse trusted to finding out by her hand instead of using a thermometer. Some hands that are accustomed to be a great deal in hot water become so much hardened that they are quite unable to tell the heat that a bath ought to be. The doctors, when they want to find out the heat of the blood, don’t put the thermometer on the hands or face, but they put the little ball filled with mercury under the tongue or on some part, of the body which is well covered up, and where the cold air cannot get to chill the blood. It is most important you should understand about u thermometer, for unless you do you will not be able to anderstand when I tell you how to cook food.
You | blood curio boilir $s caller whic
THE THERMOMETER—HEAT OF THE BLOOD. « 55
Things provided for the Lecture.
Some pieces of charcoal.
A glass windpipe and bronchial tube with air-bubble.
Stodmann’s model of the chest, page 59.
A piece of honeycomb.
A thermometer. | A candle. | A spirit lamp. | A white plate.
Diagram of windpipe.
Two bottles of oxygen gas.
Questions for the Seventh Lecture.
1, Why do people feel sleepy and faint who sit in a room where there ure a great many candles or gaslights burning ?
2. What is the name of the pipe that carries all the air we breathe into our lungs? Tell me all you can remember about it.
3. If all the blood-vessels or capillaries of the lungs were joined together, how far would they reach ?
4. How is the blood made clean in the lungs?
5. What are the names of the two things that join together in our bodies and make our blood warm and give us all our heat ?
6. How do doctors find out the heat of the body? What is the right way to find out the proper heat that a hot bath should be into which you are going to put a little child?
LECTURE V?'i. RESPIRATION (ci :tinued),
You learnt from what I told youinr , last lecture that our blood is the same hent both in summer and winter. It is a curious fact that, if we were even to breathe air as hot as boiling water, our blood would still be exactly the same heat.
Some years ago there was a man-—Chabert—who was called the Fire King. He could go into an oven, the air of which was from 400° to 600°. He would stand in the oven five minutes, and it was found that when a thermometer was put under his tongue while he was in the oven, the heat of his blood was very nearly the same as when he entered it. 1 must tell you that he perspired immensely ; no doubt a great deal of the heat was carried off by the sweat which came out of his skin. Young girls are accustomed in France to go into large bakers’ ovens when they are at 183°, in order to attend to the loaves of bread. Though a great many animals
~
-. oT < Jom Sew oy » - SP gt vie ite S ns >
or Sa
En ae nae a ee Rh PN Se ee gee > oe oie eee 228
Sy Pes ge
Se aoneee tes ~ he eh 5 se
wee
Sa
ISS te
Se tee eae eo aes
nat va Z
56 RESPIRATION.
have the same organs, ar’ ire made exactly like human beings, no other animal but man could perform this feat. Why? Simply because he has reason, and has learnt by the use of his reason that as the bottom and sides of the oven are
hot, he must wear thick shoes, or his feet would be burnt by .
standing on the hot iron. The same reason and intelligence enable men and women to live in very hot countries, such as India. There they find they must wear much lighter clothing than they put on in England, and that they must also eat different foods. Men, you know, can live in countries where the cold is so great that for nine months there is nothing to be seen but ice and snow, and the air is much colder than frozen water. There a man has to cover himself with skins of animals, which are the warmest coverings that it is possible to get. Very little cold can pass through them into the body, or heat inside escape from them. A man finds that there, too, he must eat and drink very different food from what he would do in a hot country. In cold countries people are obliged to eat a greater quantity of fat, which contains a great deal of carbon, as you know. There is more oxygen in the same bulk of cold than of warm air. Do you not know how much more hungry you feel on a cold winter’s day than you do when it is very hoton a summer’s day? For instance, when yon have been out skating on the ice, have you not felt after a little time so hungry that you could eat anything? In Russia it is said that a boy has been known to drink two quarts of train oil and eat several pounds of tallow candles in a day. I will now tell you something more about the windpipe. You see that this pipe (a glass one)! which I hold in my hand is intended to represent the windpipe. At the entrance to it, at the back of the moath, there is a little door. Whenever we swallow any food, the little door falls down over the windpipe and prevents any food from getting into it. Whenever we are not swallowing the door is open, so that air may pass down into it. Now, all down the inside lining of the windpipe there are rows of exceedingly small little hair-like bodies, that serve as brushes, called cilia. These cilia cannot be seen except with
1 I showed a glass model.
a micro: little cil of the {
you knc phlegm anythin but thr the lun ago Br his chi tunatel and th time, t As he flectio1 extrac strapp down : motio!
a chil
a 6 8 g t e O 8 e
“~"* FP ee@eo0olsa
oa .)
— = oe
THE WINDPIPE 57
a microscope. They are always waving down and up. These little cilia in the windpipe serve to send up the moist secretion of the air-passages into the mouth. When we have a cold, you know, we cough; these little brushes keep sending up the phlegm that collects in the windpipe. It is very dangerous to get anything into the windpipe, for there is no way to get it out but through the mouth. The windpipe only leads down into the lungs, and it could not pass through them. Many years ago Brunel, the celebrated civil engineer, while playing with his children, pretended to swallow half-a-sovereign. Unfor- tunately the half-sovereign really did drop down his windpipe, and there it remained for two or three weeks. During that time, the leading doctors in London tried to take it out in vain. As he was a very clever man, and had plenty of time for re- flection, he decided that he would use the following means to extract it: A plank of wood was brought, on to which he was strapped. He and the plank were turned very quickly upside down; he kept his mouth open, and, as he expected, the quick motion made the half-sovereign fly out of his mouth. In case a child should get anything into its windpipe, one plan is to turn it with its head down, clap it on the back, and shake it. The lungs of a large man can hold above eight pints of air. Of course the more fresh air we can get into our lungs the better our blood will be. When we waik or run we take in a much greater quantity of air than when we are still, because we breathe more frequently. We also become much warmer with exercise, because there is so much more oxygen to unite with the carbon. Girls suffer very much more than boys do from cold hands and cold feet, because they sit still a great part of the day. Iam sorry to say that a great many more women and girls die of consamption than men. Dressmakers, milliners, and school-girls not only sit still for hours together, but they frequently sit in bad damp air which gets no sun. Everybody ought to know a most important fact, that when the air is damp the sweat, which is poisonous matter, cannot get freely out of the skin, as the damp air prevents evaporation and also shuts up the pores. This is why people have rheumatic fevers after sleeping in damp beds or damp sheets. The damp bed- ding prevents the sweat from getting out; the sweat must
SE ee ee ae Be o~-5
SMES Set eta te 4 seer eee 2
os ” ME, ‘ ‘
58 RESPIRATION,
therefore remain in the blood, and causes the fever or cold. If the lungs »re weak, the poison settles on them, and con- sumption is brought on. Damp shoes and stockings or damp clothes have the same effects; they prevent the sweat from coming out of the feet. We little know how much rheumatism and suffering is caused by wearing thin-soled boots and damp stockings. This is how children who sit on damp grass or earth often get hip complaints. People who live in damp situations or damp houses are constantly having colds or ailing in some way. There is very little oxygen in damp air. Doctors now send some consumptive people to cold countries where the air is very dry and contains plenty of oxygen. In Iceland, it is said, people do not have consump- tion, though there they have only three months’ summer and nine months’ winter. Damp, impure air is equally bad for dumb animals, This is the reason why horses and cows which are kept in dirty damp stables die of consumption. The doc- tors say that the best way to prevent consumption is to wear warm clothing, take a great deal of exercise in good fresh air, and to eat plenty of fat food, such as butter, oil, cream, bacon, and fat. By these means the appetite will grow better, the organs be made more healthy, and the general health improve. When people understand this, they will give yp buying quack medicines, send for a medical man, and caretully follow his orders. <A doctor knows directly by listening to the breathing which lung is unhealthy. The great thing is to have advice before the disease has gone too far. When a person is suffer- ing from bronchitis, some of the little pipes, properly called bronchial tubes, that carry the air into the lungs, become in- flamed and partly closed, from cold or from checked perspira- tion. The air, therefore, cannot easily pass down through the tubes, and then the breathing becomes difficult. Directly any- one has this complaint, he ought to breath warm pure air, because warm air will make the pipes grow bigger, and then allow more air to pass down them. Cold air, you know, makes them small, and then the breathing becomes more difficult, because less air can get down. There ought to be a fire in the room night and day; the air in the room ought not to fall lower than 60° nor be higher than 70°. Deaths occur from
allowin air in ¢ that th of illne consun six mi Some then p make - consur the na
filling lows, swell out a air,
It is come two J skin quite snug of
the
dire lung
‘ ord fata sei
be
THE LUNAS, 59
allowing the fire to go out at night. It is possible to keep tho air in a sick-room both warm and pure. It is very necessary that the air should be kept pure in bronchitis and in all cases of illness. I told you in the last lecture what pleurisy is. In consumption the Inngs, which are like a honeycomb and have six millions of air-cells, become diseased and waste away. Some of the air-cells close up, so that no air can get into them ; then people suffer from shortness of breath. I should like to make you in some degree understand the difference between consumption, bronchitis, and pleurisy. I have written down the names of these three different complaints, which you must copy.
I hope by means of this model,! which I showed you last time, to make you clearly understand that the chest, called the ‘ thorax,’ which contains the two lungs and the heart, is en- tirely separated from the lower part of the body, called the ‘abdomen,’ by a very strong muscle. When the lungs are filling with air, the ribs rise up like the sides of a pair of bel- lows, and make a great deal of room, so that the lungs may swell out. The ribs cannot, like the bellows, however, press out all the air. The lungs always contain a great quantity of air, There is a skin that lines the back and front of the chest. It is this skin which is called the ‘pleura,’ and which be- comes painful when people have ‘pleurisy.’ Here are the two lungs, which are each placed in bags of the same moist skin that lines the chest, and is called the ‘ pleura.’ They are quite separated from one another, and the little beart lies snugly between them in a bag also. Here is the strong bani of muscles called the diaphragm, which completely separates the Inngs and heart from the abdomen, and which sinks down directly we take in a breath, so as to make more room for the lungs.
A great many children lose their lives every year from ‘croup.’ If taken in time, this complaint would not be sc fatal, A child who is going to have the ‘croup’ is generally seized about ten o’clock at night (that is, when it has been in bed a few hours) with a difficulty of breathing, and the child
' Messrs, Stodmann’s model of the chest; natural size,
eS ee
ay ten, OMe
f ‘ vie
- +
* Le. <
ee ee ee > - = ™ a (2 > ep sage os aes oe . . - > ct + an od ie -'3% trig +S SEL x ” c i ~ } e« e Wal? oa ion <>. + e « - . “, : : 54 " Ag tin ees P35
~
a Sis As Sa eR Ene , t* ra =~; — ee eens as z~%
Se
mS. -2 => Satins So ae SS: = = _ <i p> -
SNe = =
2 fs: = ee - be ; ae exes Tee
60 RESPIRATION.
soon makes an odd sound in its throat, like the crowing of a cock, A piece of membrane grows in the windpipe, and prevents the air from getting into the langs. The only thing to be done is to send instantly for a doctor, and light a fire if it is cold weather. If a doctor is sent for in time he may be able to prevent this piece of membrane from growing in the windpipe. If yon wait at all, it will be too late, for the mem- brane grows sc very quickly.
An infant breathes very quickly, and its heart beats very
rapidly, because the blood has to be pumped up very often into the langs, to be made pure and warm by the oxygen it finds in them. There are three things that help to keep the blood warm—exercise, thought, and fat. We know that a baby has not much real fat on its bones, it cannot take any exercise, and it has not the power of thinking. When we think and study the blood goes more rapidly to our brains, as it always does to every organ of the body that is working. If a baby’s head is kept hot it will dream and be fever’ 1 and restless ; it is not intended that its brains should work. For that reason great care ought to be taken to keep its head cool. A baby has generally no hair on its head when it is born, and the effect of this is to keep it cool. Nurses won’t believe this. They will cover the head both by day and when it is in bed, in spite of all the doctors say. Every other part of its body ought to be kept very warm, or the blood will not be able to pass through the capillaries to feed ihe flesh. Whatis the use of feeding a child with good food if the food, when it is made into blood, cannot get out of the capillaries to feed the body? Cold shuts up these wonderful little blood- vessels ; therefore a child will be pined! unless its limbs are covered up.
It is very sad to see what ignorant ideas the richest and poorest people alike have about the way in which infants and children should be treated. I constantly meet the children of the rich and educated classes on a cold winter’s day walking out very smartly dressed—hats covered with feathers and tibbons. Then I look down and see their poor little legs quite
1 ¢Pjned’ is a Yorkshire word for starved.
hare. ” and kee dirty th childrer and ver his nal he is warm, Mo: their li becaus with b: much | to the and th on ills except terial necessé consté shawl filled blood or @ resto place the ¢ pure
beea, dow The it c bloo men out or d und
dov
a2 D
Qa
Tay Pe ee ee a eee eg
WARMTH---FRESH ALK §1
hare. These poor children are generally not allowed to run and keep themselves warm, lest they should fall and injure or dirty their fine clothes. The nurse is often cross, and the children are cross, and the little things return home very cold and very unhappy. A beggar’s boy, with his bare head and his naked legs and feet, is much better off after all, because he is able to run and enjoy himself, and by that means keep warm,
More little girls die than boys every year. Mothers put their little boys into jackets and trousers at a very early age, because they like to see them look manly. The girls are left with bare arms and necks, because they are considered to look much prettier dressed in this way. The skin that is exposed to the cold air gets chilled, and then the pores become closed, and the sweat is thrown in and poisons the blood and brings on illness. Every part of the body should be covered up, except the face and the hands, with some light woollen ma- terial which will not easily take fire. Fresh air is more necessary for a baby than for a grown-up person; yet you constantly see mothers carrying their infants with a thick shawl put over their faces and mouths. If the blood becomes filled with carbonic acid gas it will not move ; and directly the blood cannot get to the head all our senses fail, and we faint, or a baby will perhaps have convulsions. The only way to restore the senses is to take the persons into fresh air, and place them flat on their backs, with their head a little raised; the oxygen will then fly into the lungs and make the blood pure and alive.
A person who falls into water.is suffocated, or drowned, because the water has filled his mouth and shut the little door down over the windpipe, so that no air can get into the lungs. The blood will not move from the lungs into the heart when it cannot have any oxygen; therefore the brain can get no blood and will not work ; then the drowning person loses his memory and senses. The great thing is to get all the water outof hismouth. See that he has nothing tight round his neck or chest. Turn him instantly on his face, and place your hand under his forehead, aud let the water 1un out which has gone down his throat; then turn him round; catch hold of his
Bene a a wn
=
Bas
Mego aes : 65 ——" a. SS See SS =. Bogh =. Si pee, Lt . - 7m = .*s50"8* -. bs oo , ee oes FE EE eae tsi ; B a ce
2 > oe oe =
es
Sos = -- +
eh LT ae
oS ee = - cr
—
ma!
ks eer fee PSS ee es
«SSF > Ta Sa 2
eS
eat gee
62 RESPIRATION,
| tongue with your fingers — do not be afraid of hurting him— mh and pull it out as far as ever you can, ‘Then tie a string, if it you have one—or tear off a strip of your pocket-hand. kerchief—across the tongue and round the lower jaw, to prevent the tongue from falling back into the throat, If it does, it will shut up the opening into the windpipe, and no air will he able to get down. Until he can breathe it is not
only useless but dangerous to try and warm his body. Turn T BE
him again on his face, to be quite sure that all the water has whic
come out and the air-passages are all free. Then, when he is fron
on his back, the head slightly raised, lift his arms up and down, I te’
because when the arms are up the ribs stretch out, and the
lungs can hold more air. Do this several times, till you see two
he tries to breathe himself. Of course do not let people abo
: crowd round; give him all the oxygen and fresh air you can. on Then, if a house is near, carry him, with his head slightly top { raised, into it, and try to restore heat gradually by rubbing par and hot blankets. Ignorant people always think the first wel
thing they must do is to make the person warm. Now this sha is @ very dangerous thing to do, because the blood cannot iy circulate until fresh air can get into the lungs. People have been known to come to life when they have been in the water for some time, because the heart may continue to beat very softly long after the senses and memory have failed.
Directions about bathing will be found in Appendix I.
Things provided for the Lecture.
Stodmann’s model of the chest containing the lungs and heart. A thermometer. . Glass windpipe with epiglottis and bronchial tubes.
Questions for the Eighth Lecture.
1. Is the heat of our blood always the same in summer and winter ?
2. Why do damp beds, damp clothes, wet feet, and damp, impure air give people rheumatism, fevers, colds, consumption, and other complaints ?
3. Why do more litt'e girls than boys die every year from chest com- plaint ?
4. What would you do it a person fainted ?
5. How would you try and bring back life to a drowning person ?
LECTURE IX. THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Tue first part of my lecture to-day will be upon the brain, which lies in the skull, and also about the nerves, which come from the brain. I shall tell you more about the nerves when I tell you about the senses.
The skull, you know, is a very strong box made of twenty two bones, which are fixed together in the form of an arch above, as you see in this picture of a human skull. It rests on the top of the spine, or backbone. Here is a picture of the top part of the brain; you see it is divided into two equal parts. These two divisions are called the big brain. They may well be called the big brain, because they fill up the forehead, and the top of the head, and extend to the back of the skull. The proper name for this part is the cerebrum. You would not think, by looking at the picture of the big brain, that it is only one mass of brain, but it is possible to take the big brain and make it lie flat in one whole piece.
I will just try and crumple up my pocket-handkerchief into folds, to try and make you understand why the brain appears as it does. These folds are called convolutions. A doctor could tell you a great deal about them. It is said that clever people have a great many more convolutions than stupid people. If you were to pinch or press the big brain you would cause no pain, as it contains no nerves of feeling; buta blow would do it great injury, because it would take away all power of memory and thought. You know how a blow ora fall on the head will stun either a human being or a dumb animal, so that it forgets for a time all that has happened. A sailor once fell from the rigging of a ship on to the deck, and was taken up insensible. He remained insensible for several months at a hospital in Gibraltar. Apparently his body was healthy all the time, for he ate and drank and slept well; the only motion observed was the constant moving of his fingers,
eS las
~~ — — Png
_——er ee y >a ->'3-R> a ne eee a wee: — — or = me
~~ ~—> <
_
& nial
- Siti eee a oe: Sie a -
a .o, Tas ME > o- ON Et Po . a ~ - =. > = »
3452
~ =
Sate
mm ——
SAS
} ‘ mt
it
;
a
in) ‘ ‘
_ Pie g 2 >t hoe Y oo ae = = aig sie -
> 5 th warm <3 Seu ae ot > ? y #5 : a ae . ee P
Ser
> _ ~~.
at
es
THE BRAiN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
and of his tongue and lips when he required food. At last he was brought over to England. Mr. Cline, a celebrated London surgeon, examined his skull, and found that a piece of the bone had been pushed in, and was pressing upon the big brain. The sailor had now been unconscious for thirteen months. Directly Mr. Cline lifted up the piece of bone, and all pressure was quite taken away, the man ceased to move his fingers. A few hours after the operation he was able to sit up in bed. At the end of seven or eight days he walked
Fic. 20.
Diagram of the top part of the big brain, or cerebrum, showing how it is divided into two part, also that the brain does not lie flat, but is crumpled up into what are called convolutions.
about and could remember and tell of all that happened before
the accident, but he could not recall a single thing that had
happened during his illness.
T think if nurses could hear what I have just told you about the brain, they would never again venture to press the bones of a baby’s head together. The part of the brain which looks in this picture like the branches of a tree, and is placed under the great brain, is called the little brain, or cerebellum, d. It also is incapable of feeling pain, but may be injured in the same way as the big brain by pressure. The nerves of feeling come from this strange-looking part, e, which is placed under the little brain.'’ A part of this nerve-substance passes down
' Marshall's diagram, No. 7.
from. thi white co small ne bones or There a fine net prick y needle k one has
Half the brain gether vite), oblong
scratd throu the s in so the { not ff not pain ‘
THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD, 65
he from the head through the middle of the backbone like a pn white cord. It is called the spinal cord, f. You can see two ne small nerves that look like threads come out between the ig bones on both sides of the spine, in the neck, back, and loins. en There are thirty-one pairs of nerves; they spread out like a it od fine network and reach every spot in the body.!| When you ny . . ° . . ” xt ve prick yourself with a pin it causes you pain, because the ¢ 2 . ° LHe to needle has touched a nerve. We have two skins. This outer th ; ed one has no nerves in it, as you will find by rubbing it, or by Mg) aw he ef mp * @ 4 rh + ee ’ as { i | ao : *, Se fA 6 to ia a he ett an beak he ER i af ei te bf i fa GM ie AB hs me nto ot Wh ER led in " Half the brain, a, inside view of the big braia, showing the convolutions, or how the ‘ + oe i} ‘4 brain is crumpled up; ¢ is the part where the two halves of the brain are joined to- pat ‘+ ee re gether; @, half the little brain, showing the curious white threads, like a tree (arbor- to Ske tam id ' vite), that run through the grey matter of which the little brain is made ; e, medulla i ae Bem obldngata; 7, part of the spinal cord. 7 ot Ea ut scratching it very gently with a pin. Directly the pin passes i ie through it you feel the pain, because the nerves are placed in ty Be Py e . re 4 . . inf a | the second skin, called the true skin, under the first. Then va eM s M4 "th, i & . in some parts of the body there are no nerves; for instance, a oe , the tips of our nails, which are not fastened to the flesh, do ‘ts , ° : ra! i . not feel pain when we cut them. The hair on our head has oe ; ° ° . . -" P i 3 5 not any; that is why it can be cut like the nails and feel no is | F # = pain. ey ’ We have a great many more nerves in some parts of our 3 | 4 ' Marshall's diagram, No. 7, fig. 22, page 66.
ae
==xn - Pes
4
66 THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
bodies than in others, as the lips, tongue, feet and hands; the tips of our fingers are very sensitive ; they are provided with
Front view of the con-
tents of the skull
and the spinal cord,
with all the nerves
that go from the
bottom of the brain
up into the head,
such as the nerves
of sight, hearing,
taste, smell, and
the nerves that
come out of the
spinal cord as it
passes down
through the back-
bone, called also
Fic. 22.
the vertebral column, aa, the two halves of the big brain (cere. brum) ; b, little brain (cerebellum) ; 1 to 9, the nerves of smell, sight, hear- ing, taste, &c.; m, medulla oblongata. All the other nerves pass out to different parts of the body between the bones, or vertebrae, of the
spine,
SPINAL CORD AND NERVES. 67
Fic. 28,
Ue | a Sa | a aS a ie ‘ A x. * 2 "° e ny ae) 4G 4) aii wh Aad it Hit ot iy We gs 1 a . hay
$i, q ' 2 oe t 3 2 a ae ba ’ ; Oe My Sha a! ot ee \- vty or mm te ag a, oe AN « ial 4 thy Vy hi ta) eeeALL i. ame te ee vv ih og Ooam iii} f, } A at; ia ‘ 7. id Bh 4 1 Oe ae ‘ oR \s pe a ‘ “My ' , i te “or. ee en ‘ 44 » te fe { ‘ ae S28 $s Fe a a i ae eit 4 * Tu a ty ts Pg yt iif Ma ret ba Va! ve v4 sh | xs « 4, f a 4
View of the nerves, They look like fine white threads, and spread like network over every part of the body. They can be scen going to every organ and muscle to make them move and do their work, A, the heart; s, part of the stomach: 4, piece of the bowels , 4, kidney, This kidney is the right kidney, though in the picture it appears
to the left,
68 THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
a great many little nerves. It is by this means that blind people are taught to read with their fingers. The sense of touch is so delicate in the tips of the fingers that blind people have been known to distinguish differently coloured materials, and to do many very wonderful things, by the sense of touch.
Fia. 24.
This diagram shows the different shapes of some of the bones that are joined together and make the backbone or spine. Each of these bones is called a vertebra. a and b are the same bone, only a is seen sideways and 6b from the top; it is one of the seven bones that make the neck. cand d, seen in the same way, represent a vertebra taken from the middle of the backbone. e and_/, seen in the same way, show a vertebra from the middle part of the loin. The pointed part that stands out in all the bones is placed outside ; the round smooth part lies inside the body, as will be seen by looking at fig. 9,
page ?7,
It is said that the most intelligent animals are those whose sense of touch is the finest. The parrot is the cleverest bird, the pads of its toes are so sensitive. The elephant is the most Sagacious of quadrupeds ; the end of its trunk is so sensitive ¢ «it can feel and handle objects almost as well as we can.
All animals which have a bony or cartilaginous skull have brains and a backbone, or vertebral column. It is called a vertebral column because each of these little bones by which it is made is called a vertebra.! All animals which have a
1 I showed two or thee of these bones.
vertebral them hav not all y certain «
MWe
Vertebrat differen h, the h
organs struct have 1
VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 69
vertebral column are called vertebrate animals, and many of them have organs like those of a human being, though they are not all placed in the same way. In some anima/s, however, certain organs are absent; in others they are represented by
Sr ine x Se
> » ° - apt Boe Rat. 20 ge
ot Sele
aN ne " p f; f
$45
Bl Be we
¢.
Z «sd
ae
.. ener on A t MB Nay: ‘ ‘ tH, E fe ie 4 :
Vertebrate animals have the same organs as human beings, This picture shows how the different organs are placed in a weasel. m, mouth; 6, brain; ¢, windpipe; p, lungs; h, the heart ; J, liver ; i, intestines and stomach ; s, spinal cord,
organs performing a similar office, but having a different structure. Fish, for example, breatue by means of gills ; they have no lungs. I have brought pictures of the skeleton of a horse, a bira, a fish, and a reptile, and you will see that they all have a 1b vertebral column, or backbone, anda bony skull.'! Here is a en frog. You can see its heart and other organs, and its foci, A that doctors often put under a microscope to show the circula- tion of the blood through the capillaries. The frog is a most useful and curious creature, but I cannot now tell you more 3@ about it. When I take you to the Museum you shall see all 1, the animals I have talked about. st The animals I am going to say something about to-day e are the horse and the donkey. Look at the horse’s skull, and you will see that it has a very different shape from the skull C ofa man.? The horse’s skull is flat at the top, and has a very 4 small ‘great brain.’ All animals except man have a very 1 2 sual quantity of brain at the top of the head. You know it
Yate ee ae
1 Skeleton of a horse, page 72. 2 Show a human skull, or picture of one, page 21,
THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Intestines, ,_.._.
Vertebraie animal, because it has a bony skull and backbone
is that part of the brain which gives us the power of r
ing, and ought to make us superior to all other a Horses are very intelligent and have excellent memories
They never forget those who are kind to them, and can be
made to do anything by a master they love. On the itis
hand, a horse does not forget those who have treated on
cruelly, is coura weaker a great Directl; away, a little fr field w!
ONn-=
ies.
be her im
VERTEBRATE ANIMALS, 71
eruelly, and will refuse as long as he can to obey them. He is courageous, and will do his best to defend w friend who is weaker than himself. There was once a small dog that had lived a great deal in a stable. One day a big mastiff attacked him, Directly the horse saw this he went up, kicked the mastiff away, and sent him flying, and then walked by the side of his little friend till he considered him quite safe. They were in a field when this happened.
Fig. 27.
Birds are vertebrate animals. This is a picture of an ostrich ; it has a bony skull and a backbone.
Horses have so much affection that they have been known, it is said, to die of grief on losing a kind master or an old companion. They are very timid and nervous animals ; there- fore we know their bodies are well provided with nerves. A thunderstorm has made them tremble all over like a leaf. The reason why horses shy at objects on the road is because they
CeseMsgeeos
5
a
a2
” ‘
3 a
4 w ny
2. - . ia. eee es SSIs Seiiieaiiteme chee a ss — SP RE
=
a ae! Sr
THt BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM,
are afraid of them. Directly they understand what the object is their fear passes away.
The nerves of the horse, like the nerves of a human being, come out from between the bones of the spine, and spread into every part of the body.
Fia, 28.
poe
ce ae eran fa 7s SAS rey OTS. EE wee \ as . Pee |S rad
a
Skeleton of a horse, which is a vertebrate animai, beentse it has a bony skull d, and backbone, or vertebral coluunn, marked B, C, D, 1,
I told you that we had a great many more nerves in some parts of the body than in others. I'v soles of our feet have so many that we can awiioly bear to have them totwilied. People have been tickled to death; in some countries this has beem one way criminals were put to death. I am now going to tell you how wonderfully a horse’s foot, called a hoof, is made. If you look a’ the feet of a horse you will see they are no bigger than our feet, though they have to bear so great
NERVOUS SYSTEM OF A HORSE. 73
a weight. I will now show you the model of one which I have in this box.' You see it has not five toes as we have; it has only one toe, ending in a solid piece, which supports the hoof. There are only three other animals that have a foot in one piece. They are the donkey, the zebra, and the quagga.
Horses and donkeys live wild in hot couutries where there are great plains of sand, as well as in countries where there are wide tracts of grass. Our roads in England are so very hard and stony that it is considered necessary to put iron shoes on their feet to prevent them from being injured. They do not wear shoes in their own countries, such as Arabia, Persia, and America,
The poor donkey is a beautiful animal in its own country, The Persians bring up the little foals upon milk, and let them live in their tenta as the Arabs do their hovses, A donkey is anid to be more'sensible and gentle that a horse before it has been made stupid by cruel treatinent. ‘lhe more sense an ani- mal has the harder it is to manago after it has been wakindly treated, Donkeys are sold fi more than a hundred crowns in the East, where princes and nobles ride on them. The Prince of Wales had a beautiful one sent him from Hgypt. In Spain they grow tall—fifteen hands high—and are some. times sold for a hundred guineas. It is said that five hundred pounds was once given for an ass in Rome.
You see by this model of a horse’s hoof that all the front part of the foot is covered by a horny substance, the same kind of substance that our nails are made of. The horse’s hoof is really like our middle toe, much enlarged. This horny substance is nearly an inch thick; it grows as quickly as our nail does, because at the top of the hoof there are a great initty arteries and capillaries that feed this horn with blood aud make it grow quickly. It grows downwards. It is smooth and bright, and looks as if it had been polished ; this polish prevents any water from getting through. The under part of the foot is called the sole, as we call the under part of our foot a sole, only a horse has two soles instead of one. This that you first see is the horny sole; it sinks in a little, so that
1 T showed Auzoux’s model of a horse’s foot.
oo es x at te §<
-
~_—
pe PAAR PS Sy
74 THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
the nail that projects round the edge of it can protect it, To. wards the back part there is this raised part like a cushion ; it is called the ‘frog.’ The frog is a most wonderful and useful part, for when it rests constantly on anything hard it becomes so tough and hard that even 1 piece of glass will not hurt it. By this means the horse is able to pass over the most stony roads in its own country, where it is not shod. Some people think it would be better not to shoe them at all ir England.
I will now take off the hard polished hoof, or nail, and th. horny sole and frog, in which there are no nerves, and show you how delicately the under sole is made. You see it is covered with nerves, arteries, and veins. The whole of the front of the hoof has these little white lines, like the leaves of a book, which run from the top of the hoof to the bottom, called laminz. There are no less than three hundred of them; they are all made of a soft substance, containing many nerves. This is that part in our toes and fingers which we call the quick, which lies under the nail, and hurts so dreadfully if anything sharp rans down the nail.
Now you must look and see how beautifully these three hundred laminw are guarded by the horny covering, or shoe. Each of the lamine is placed in a little horny groove to protect it. Under them you can see the bone of the foot, which is called the coffin bone. There are a great many little holes in the coffin bone for the arteries and veins to pass through, so that they may not be hurt by any pressure. Here is the tender sole, where there are so many nerves.
Everything is done by nature to guard the foot. I am sorry to say there are ignorant blacksmiths and grooms who do their best to spoil all that God has done, First they put on iron shoes of an immense weight, and then they fasten them on by too many nails, which are sent in too far, till they touch some of the tender parts. Sometimes they make the foot fit the shoe by cutting away the horny part till it has the same shape as the iron shoe. Some people consider it an im- provement to scrape the polished hoof with a knife; then the wet gets in, and the nail becomes rotten and breaks away, so that there is very little horny substance to fasten the nails to.
THE HORSE'S HOOF, 75
Things provided for the Lecture.
if Marshall’s diagram of the nerves, No. 7. Drawings of the skeleton of a horse, dog, bird, fish. Drawings of the organs of a frog.
Mi There are knives made on purpose to shave off some of the ; frog, or soft cushion ; then the horse, having nothing to pro- d tect the tender sole, becomes lame, Cracked heels are often it caused by cutting away the little tuft of hair that is placed ot at the back of the foot to guard that part. Bt Exercise is necessary for horses; the feet are very much ~ injured by standing still in a hot, damp stable. The feet then a . grow tender, and the frog and horny sole grow smaller, so that rae the nerves and blood-vessels get squeezed together, and grow ‘ ; Lag small and weak. xy Ee lad The donkey’s foot is very like the horse’s; the only difference a iT 18 is, that the donkey’s hoof is longer and the sole more hollow. a 4: ne It is by this means that it can walk in rough and steep places ee of better than the horse, because its hoof digs into the earth, and 4s i mn, gets a better hold of it. we td 8. ¥ 4
i Auzoux’s model of tho horse’s hoof. , The words Vertebral Column and Vertebre were written up in large ct letters on the blackboard. 18 Questions for the Ninth Lecture. oY 1, Describe all you can remember about the brain. 2. Should we suffer pain if we had no nerves ? 8. Name some of the parts of the body that have no nerves and those m parts that have the most nerves, 10 4. Do you remember why all animals who have a bony skull are called it vertebrate animals ? n 5. Tell me all you can remember about the horse’s hoof, and how it is y injured by ignorant blacksmiths and grooms, CS) e \- Sssieg are ean ee e
76 DIGESTION.
LECTURE X. DIGESTION.
To-pzy we are going to hear about the way in which the food we eat is digested—that means, how it is cuanged by the different organs of digestion, and made into blood.
I will first point uut where some of the largest organs of digestion are placed in this part of the body called the abdo- men, The abdomen is separated from the chest by a large muscle called the diaphragm.' Here is the stomach, lying nearly in the middle, close under the ‘diaphragm.’ The liver is above and to the right of the stomach, and the intestines, or bowels, are beneath the stomach. This muscle called the diaphragm is a very important part, and I will try and explain how curiously it moves.
When you take in a deep breath of air, your ribs swell out, and so do the lungs. The diaphragm, instead of rising up at the same time that the ribs do, sinks down, and so makes room for the lungs to grow as big as they can. Draw in a good breath, and you will see that this is the case.
Our blood, as I have before said, contains at least forty different substances. The food is first changed in the mouth. The mouth is a strong box of bone which contains the tongue and thirty-two teeth, sixteen at the top and sixteen at the bottom. A learned man would at least give you one lesson entirely about teeth. I can only tell you enough about them to make you understand that God has given us different kinds of teetl., so that we may be able to eat both animal and vegetable food.
Animals which live on nothing but flesh—that is, by eatirg other animals—have very different teeth from those who eas nothing but grass. I have brought the skull of a lion. A lion, you know, eats nothing but animal food. You see he has four enormous teeth, two on each jaw. celled canine teeth, for holding the prey, besides numerous molar teeth. Between these canine teeth the flesh is caught and pierced and torn,
1 Marshill’s diagram, No. 3, page 4.
a TRENT
od.
ne
THE TERTH. 77
whilst the molar teeth cut it to pieces as knives would, because their edges are very sharp like knives. The lion can only
Fic. 29.
Side view of the trunk of the body, showing how the diaphragm d divides the chest or thorax ¢, from the abdomen a, where the stomach, liver, bowels, and the other organs of digestion are placed. The ribs in the picture are spread out as far as they will go,
because the lungs are full of air; 6 is the breast-bone, or sternum,
move his lower jaw up and down, like a chopping-machine, not from side to side.
It is impossible for man or any quadruped to move the upper jaw, as the upper teeth are placed in those bones of the face which cannot move. I have brought the same human skull you saw at another lecture,' as it has a very perfect set
1 I showed a human skull, and how the lower jaw moves,
PA I i a hn lap dE eats é OEE RAR AS Baa a acta pata ee = Sem, rsa: oes
ij
———
75 DIGESTION.
4 of teeth. A human being can, you see, move his lower jaw not ie only upwards and downwards, but backwards and forwards uy and from side to side.
A cow is ananimal that eats nothing but grasa, with certain plants growing in it. Have you ever noticed a cow eating or chewing its cud in a field? If not, watch one, and you will see how much it moves its lower jaw about-~upwards and downwards, backwards and forwards, and from side to side. The cow does not chop its food as the lion does; it grinds it as the mill does corn. The teeth used for grinding food are called mill or molar teeth ; a very good name for them.
I have brought you a single tooth of an elephant. I should like to have brought you the skull of an elephant, but I found it would require four strong men to carry it. When we go to the Museum, I will show you all the differ-
| ent animals and their skeletons that we have talked about
together. Though the elephant is the largest and strongest
quadruped that now lives on the earth, he is also one of the
gentlest with those who treat him kindly. Mothers have
left their children to his care for some hours. They were
be perfectly safe; no one was allowed to touch them until the ais mothers’ return.
iy Animals who feed on vegetable food are always more
aS gentle than those who feed on flesh-meat. If a lion has once
a ‘killed and eaten a man, he never rests until he has found
another, An Indian gentleman, who came from Bengal, told
; me last winter that he had seen a tiger who had eaten at least .! two hundred men. English gentlemen and native gentlemen 1 in India enjoy hunting and shooting lions and tigers. Work- be ing-men who are natives are not allowed to kill them. The
consequence is that there are so many tigers that they roam
about and kill and eat up great numbers of people. Travel-
; lers frequently find villages quite deserted. Directly the
pea people hear that these animals are approaching they fly to other places for safety.
Now we must examine the teeth in the human skull, to ass see what teeth we have. There are eight small cutting teeth, Hin four in the upper jaw and four in the bottom jaw; they come ih in the front. Between them and the three double teeth there
ey ’ rey.
THE SALIVA GLANDS, 79
are three other teeth on each side in both the upper and the iower jaw-bone; they cut up the butcher’s meat we eat. The double teeth are molar teeth; they grind the vegetable food. It is therefore intended we should eat both animal and vegetable food, as we have teeth that will chop up foods of every kind.
Our food is first changed, asI told you, inthe mouth. But before we put any food into it I should like you to fancy your- selves standing before a pastry-cook’s shop, feeling very hungry. What would happen directly you saw all the good things? Your mouths would begin to water. Where did that water come from? You have taken nothing to drink for some time. This water came from some wonderful little organs called salivary glands. You see this little glass ; it is of the shape of an almond.! It has a little pipe at the end of it. This almond- shaped bulb is something like the simplest form of a gland; but the glands which make the saliva consist of numbers of little sacs opening into the ends of a branched tube called a duct. We have six of these in the mouth—one in each cheek, and one under the tongue on each side, and one below each side of the lower jaw. Three and a half pints of saliva are said to pour out of them daily into the mouth. No organs seem to me more wonderful than the glands. There are a great many of them in different parts of the body.
We will now take a mouthful of meat into our mouths, and see what happens to it. The teeth will first cut it up into small pieces; the saliva will make it soft, and the tongue will roll it into a ball, and send it to the back of the mouth. At the back of the mouth there is a little door of flesh that hangs from the upper jaw. Directly the ball of food touches this little door it will be lifted up and cover an opening there is into the nose, ’o prevent any food from getting into this opening. The little door that covers the windpipe will close at the same time, and the ball will roll over the door into the gullet. Here are two glass tubes placed together as the windpipe and gullet are placed; the red pipe is in- tended to represent the windpipe, and the yellow pipe is the
' T showed a glass bulb in the shape of an almond.
——
ie : ae ; fh f % f] 4 mor caer | nt ‘anf \ ey 4. a MG a | 4 f 8 4 it
2 rit phindel i Secs — * a =
80 DIGESTION.
gullet.! The gullet is the tube that carries the food into the stomach. Remember it lies behind the windpipe, nearest to the backbone.
The ball of food that has just been made in the mouth will not run or fly down the gullet as we think it does. The food will pass gradually downwards. It is first held by the muscular fibres at the upper part ; then these muscular fibres press it on until, step by step, it reaches the door that opens into the stomach. It is not, then, because you are standing up that your food goes down into your stomach; it would go down just as well if you stood on your head. I dare say you have seen a juggler perform the wonderful feat of drinking a glass of water when he was standing on his head. The water goes down step by step, just as the solid food does. Cows and horses and all four-footed animals eat and drink with their heads down. They have no difficulty, because their food passes along a gullet made like ours.
Now I must tell you something about the stomach. No doubt you have «ll seen and heard a bagpipe that men play in the streets. It is an instrument which Scotchmen make with the stomach of a pig. The stomach of a man is of exactly the same shape.? It has three layers of muscular fibres. In the outside one there are fibres which pass downwards over the stomach ; in the middle one they go round ‘it; in the inner one they pass down obliquely. The fibres which pass downwards shorten the bag; those which go round it make it narrower, and the inner fibres draw the sides of the bag over the food. By this means the stomach keeps moving the food that is in it up and down, just as a churn moves the milk about to make it into butter. Inside this is another thin skin, which is very smooth and has a beautiful pink colour. This is all I shall tell you about the organs of diges- tion to-cay.
Before I finish my lecture I should like to tell you some- thing which I dare say a great many of you already know about water. Water is made of two gases, oxygen and
1 I showed two glass pipes (the windpipe was red, the gullet yellow); they were fastened together to show the position of the two pipes.
y P Ply
2 I showed Ramm and Stodmann’s model of a human stomach.
2,5
>
C8 ns
5 2H 2 g 6 OR
= —ait ee Cr all Samal Saw re A Lqe) _ ~ S
ELEMENTS OF WATER, 81
hydrogen. You have already heard from me a great deal about oxygen gas. Hydrogen is the lightest of all gases, and for that reason balloons have been filled with it. A balloon, though it looks so large when it is filled with this gas, is lighter than the air about it, and therefore rises up. This balloon is full of hydrogen; it will therefore float up to the top of the room.
You must copy down what is written about water on the blackboard :—In nine pounds of water, eight pounds of the whole weight would consist of oxygen; only one pound of that quantity would be hydrogen. Oxygen is sixteen times heavier than hydrogen.
Things provided for the Lectvre.
Marshall’s diagram of the viscera, No. 3.
A picture of the gullet and intestines.
Two pipes to represent the gullet and windpipe in glass.
A little glass bladder and pipe to represent a simple gland. A balloon filled with hydrogen gas.
A bottle of oxygen gas.
Questions for the Tenth Lectwre.
1. How are the lungs and heart kept quite separate from the stomach, vowels, and other organs which lie in the abdomen ?
Tell me something about our teeth, and why we can eat all kinds of food.
5. What happens to our food when we put it in our mouths, and how
does it get down into the stomach ? . What is the